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SUGGESTIONS 


Teaching  Geography 


Henry  McCormick 

Professor  of  History  and  Geography  in  the  Illinois  Normal 
University 

Author  of  Practical  Work  in  Geography 


6G'B9 


HI.OOMINOTON,   II. 1, 
ililic  Rt'hiKil  I'lililisliiiiK  r,.ni|,. 


Copyright  1899 

Public-School  Publishing  Company 

Bloomington,  Illinois 


Printed  >.y 
Pantagraph  Printing  and  Statii 
Bloomington,  Illinois 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 

ItOS  AfiGELtES,  C  AU. 

CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


Page. 


Chapter  I.      Why    Class   Geography    Among    the 

Sciences? 7 

Chapter  II.     The  Content  of  Geography,       .  13 

Chapter  III.     The    Educational    Value    of    Geog-  . 

raphy, 19 

Chapter  IV.     Psychological  Value  of  Geography^,  28 

Chapter  V.     Methods  of  Teaching,  3G 

'HE  BEGINNINGS  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

Chapter  VI.     Direction,  Distance,  Form,  andColor,  41 


Chapter  VII.     Climate,  Evaporation,  and  Condens 
ation,  


Chapter  VIII.     Soil,  Vegetation,  and  Animals, 

Chapter  IX.    Importance  of  Labor, 

Chapter  X.     Map  Representation,    . 

Chapter  XI.     Analysis  and  Synthesis, 

Chapter  XII.     Value    of    Maps    and    Pictures    in 
Teaching  Geography, 


51 
63 

78 
87 
92 

105 


THE   IMAGINARY    EXCURSION    AND    ITS    PLACE 
IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 

CHAPTER  XIII.     A  Trip  Down   the  Hudson  River,  115 

Chapter  XIV.     A  Trip  Down  the  Rhine   River,     .  132 

Chapter  XV.     A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India,  .  143 

Chapter  XVI.  A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India— Contd.  158 


PREFACE. 


The  most  of  these  chapters  have  appeared  in 
The  Public- School  Journal  from  time  to  time.  Some 
friends  have  thought  them  worthy  of  being-  put  in 
a  more  convenient  form,  so  here  they  are.  As  the 
title  implies,  they  are  simply  intended  to  be  sugges- 
tive in  their  character.  No  book  is  of  very  high 
value  unless  it  suggests  better  things  to  the  user 
than  it  contains.  It  is  believed  that  this  little  book 
will  do  so,  and  that  it  will  therefore  be  helpful  to 
teachers  and  pupils. 

The  attention  of  teachers  and  of  those  fitting 
themselves  to  be  teachers  is  called  especially  to  the 
introductory  chapters.  They  may  not  approve  of 
all  that  is  said;  but  as  honest  students  they  will 
seek  after  the  truth  for  its  own  sake,  and  these 
chapters  may  guide  them  in  the  way  that  leads  to  it. 

The  chapters  under  Imaginary  Excursions  are  in- 
tended as  models  to  be  followed  by  the  pupils.  It  is 
hoped  they  may  take  as  much  pleasure  in  studying 
them  as  the  writer  did  in  their  preparation.  If  they 
do,  it  is  certain  that  those  lessons  will  not  prove 
burdensome  in  the  least. 

It  is  with  the  hope  that  it  may  help  teachers  and 
pupils  to  see  the  profit  and  pleasure  there  are  in 
the  study  of  Geography  that  this  volume  has  been 
prepared  by  Their  friend, 

Henry  McCokmick. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


CHAPTER 


WHY  CLASS  GEOGRAPHY  AMONG  THE  SCIENCES? 

Some  teachers  and  writers  refuse  to  consider 
geography  a  science.  They  insist  that  it  has  no 
basal  idea  of  its  own  on  which  to  stand,  and  fur- 
thermore that  it  consists  of  facts  drawn  from  many 
sciences  such  as  astronomy,  climatology,  botany, 
zoology,  history,  and  sociology. 

It  must  be  granted  that  much  that  properly  be- 
longs to  these  subjects  may  be,  and  usually  is,  classed 
under  geography.  And  it  is  greatly  to  its  credit  that 
it  can  take  materials  from  so  many  sources  and  unite 
them  into  a  symmetrical  whole,  but  if  "science  is 
the  systematic  arrangement  of  the  laws  of  phenom- 
ena,"* the  writer  insists  that  geography  is  a  science, 

that  it  rests  on  the  idea  of  place  as  a 
Place  the 

_       ...  foundation,  f  is  built  up  of  facts  which 

Foundation.  '  1 

are  peculiarly  its  own  and  which,  with 
few  exceptions,  may  be  acquired  in  the  home  neigh- 
borhood, that  these  facts  are  firmly  held  in  place  by 
the  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  and  that  it  has  for 
its  central  idea,  connecting  it  with  man  and  his  in- 
terests, what  may  be  termed,  earth-life,  or  the  life  of 
the  globe. 

Not  only  is  the  idea  of  place  the  foundation  of 
geography,  it  is  also  the  main  support  of  all  kin- 
dred subjects  and  makes  their  close  correlation  with 


•Joseph  Baldwin:    Elementary  Psychology  and  Education.    Page  30. 
tBain:     Education  as  a  Science.    Page  272. 


8  Teaching  Geography. 

geography  possible  and  intelligent.  It  is  the  lead- 
ing thought  of  astronomy:  The  place  of  the  moon 
with  reference  to  its  planet,  of  the  planet  with  refer- 
ence to  its  sun,  of  the  sun  with  reference  to  the 
many  other  suns  which  constitute  the  stellar  system, 
and  the  places  of  the  different  stellar  systems  with 
regard  to  each  other  and  to  the  ultimate  center  of 
gravity. 

It  requires  no  lengthy  dissertation  to 
Relation  of  , ,     ,    ...        ,       ,  ,  . 

c..      .  prove  that  climate  depends  on  place: 

to  Place.  Place  near  to  or  remote  from  the  equa- 

tor, place  near  the  level  of  the  sea,  place 
at  a  moderate  altitude  or  at  great  heights;  place 
on  the  windward  side  of  the  mountain,  copiously 
watered;  place  on  the  leeward  side,  burning  desert; 
place  in  the  path  of  the  warm  currents  of  air  and 
water,  blessed  with  fruitfulness;  and  place  exposed 
to  polar  currents,  a  frozen  waste.  And  if  it  is  granted 
that  climate  depends  on  place,  it  must  be  conceded 
that  botany  and  zoology  rest  on  the  same  foundation. 
Among  the  principal  factors  in  what  is 

Relation  of  termed  sociology  are  agriculture,  corn- 
Commerce  -,  r       .  ml 

^    _,,  merce,   and   manufactures.      These  are 

to  Place. 

selected  because  they  are  the  ones  with 

which  geography  deals  most.  Agriculture  is  so  de- 
pendent on  climate  that  nothing  further  need  be 
said  of  its  dependence  on  place.  That  the  centers 
and  routes  of  commerce  are  largely  determined  by 
place  is  also  evident.  Chicago  at  the  head  of  a  great 
waterway,  and  New  York  at  its  foot,  with  Buffalo  at 
the  point  of  transfer  from  the.  lakes  to  the  Hudson, 
testify  to  the  fact;  so  does  the  prosperity  of  Duluth, 
that  city  being  the  nearest  point  at  which  the  North- 


Is  Geography  a  Science  ?  9 

em  Pacific  Railroad  could  touch  the  Great  Lakes. 
Kansas  City  and  Omaha  owe  their  importance  to 
their  position  at  the  gateways  to  the  Southwest 
and  Northwest,  respectively;  while  the  position  of 
Pittsburg-,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Allegheny  and 
Monongahela  rivers,  of  Philadelphia  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Delaware,  and  of  New  Orleans 
at  the  outlet  of  the  Mississippi  basin,  assured  their 
importance,  at  an  early  day,  as  receiving  and  dis- 
tributing points  for  large  areas  of  territory. 

Marseilles,  because  of  its  position  at 
Location  of  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  and  in  south- 
Cities  in  Other  T-, 

~       .  .  eastern    France,   was    important    as    a 

Countries.  L 

commercial  center  long  before  Marius 

and  Sulla  deluged  the  Roman  world  with  blood, 
and  for  centuries  has  had  a  monopoly  of  the  French 
trade  with  the  Levant.  The  founding  of  Alexandria 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  forbade  the  rebuilding  of 
Tyre,  and  doomed  its  site  to  be  "a  place  for  the 
drying  of  nets."  And  the  commanding  position  of 
Constantinople,  with  the  Mediterranean  on  its  right, 
the  Black  Sea  on  its  left,  the  outlet  of  the  Danube 
to  the  rear,  and  the  route  to  India  in  front,  has 
always  made  it  the  desire  of  nations. 

The  character  of  the  surface  of  Illinois 
and  the  proximity  of  its  principal  river- 
basin  to  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  Chicago,  has 
had  much  to  do  with  creating  a  demand  for  thirteen 
railroad  bridges  across  the  Mississippi  river.  Per- 
haps some  one  will  assert  that  the  construction  was 
due  to  the  westward  tendency  of  emigration.  But 
why  this  westward  tendency'?  It  began  back  in 
the   twilight  of  history,  when  the  Celts  and  Teu- 


10  Teaching  Geography. 

tons*  left  their  Asiatic  homes  and  were  followed  by 
the  Slavs  and  Huns.  These  enterprising  pioneers 
moved  westward,  rather  than  in  some  other  direc- 
tion, simply  because  it  was  easier  to  do  so,  owing 
to  the  general  westerly  dip  of  the  land,  and  also  be- 
cause they  could  travel  long  distances  in  the  same 
climate  without  meeting  with  any  rugged  mountains 
to  bar  their  progress. 

Other  illustrations  of  the  dependence  of  com- 
merce upon  place,  in  our  own  country  and  in  others, 
could  easily  be  given,  but  it  is  not  necessary.  Enough 
have  been  given  to  suggest  multitudes  of  centers  and 
almost  innumerable  routes  of  commerce  both  by  land 
and  water,  all  dependent  on  their  position  or  place. 

To  show  the  dependence  of  many  of  the 
Hanufactures  ,  -,,  ,  r      , 

a  pi  world  s    great    manufacturing    centers 

upon  place  is  not  at  all  difficult.  Phila- 
delphia and  Wilmington  (Del.)  are  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  products  because  of 
their  proximity  to  extensive  fields  of  coal  and  iron; 
and  their  position  on  navigable  waters  determines 
that  much  of  their  products  take  the  form  of  steel 
ships.  The  same  is  true  of  Glasgow,  Liverpool,  and 
Newcastle.  Formerly  all  the  great  centers  of  the 
shipbuilding  industry  were  found  in  ports  convenient 
to  suitable  forests;  now,  because  of  the  transition 
from  wood  to  iron  and  from  iron  to  steel  in  naval 
architecture,  such  centers  are  found  on  the  Dela- 
ware, Clyde,  Mersey,  Tyne,  and  other  waters  easily 
accessible  to  materials  used. 


*Manv  learned  men  consider  these  and  all  other  Aryans  as  aborig- 
ines of  Europe,  but  the  majorit3-  regard  them  asof  Asiatic  origin. 


Is  Geography  a  Science?  11 

nanufacture  Wilkesbarre  is  in  the  great  anthracite 
of  Iron  and  region  of  Pennsylvania,  consequently 
Glass.  the  most  of  its  manufactured  products 

consist  of  machinery  and  locomotives  necessary  in 
the  coal  traffic.  Pittsburg-  became  an  important 
center  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  glass  early 
in  its  history,  because  coal  and  iron  were  abundant 
in  the  vicinity,  suitable  sand  not  far  off,  and  the 
Ohio  river  afforded  good  shipping  facilities.  Be- 
cause of  their  position  Birmingham  (Ala.),  Chatta- 
nooga, and  Lynchburg,  have  in  a  generation  grown 
from  rickety  little  villages  into  opulent  manufac- 
turing cities  whose  names  and  fame  are  known  in 
the  iron  and  steel  markets  of  the  world.  Minne- 
apolis, Richmond,  and  Rochester  have  become  the 
noted  milling  points  of  the  continent  because  of  their 
position  near  great  water-falls  and  in  productive 
wheat  regions. 

Other  Bangor,  Grand   Rapids,  Oshkosh,  and 

ilanufactures.  other  cities  in  the  great  pine  belt,  are 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  lumber  and  wooden 
ware  of  all  sorts.  While  New  England,  partly  be- 
cause of  its  rough  surface,  barren  soil,  and  abun- 
dant water  power,  and  partly  because  of  the  genius 
of  its  people,  may  be  regarded  as  one  great  factory 
turning  out  an  endless  variety  of  articles.  And  in 
nearly  every  instance  it  will  be  found  that  the  lead- 
ing centers  are  close  to  water-falls  or  rapids  to 
whose  presence  they  owe  their  prosperity,  even 
though  some  of  them  at  present  are  compelled  to 
resort  to  steam  power.  Birmingham,  Bradford, 
Leeds,  Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  a  score  of  other 
manufacturing     cities    owe    their    reputation    and 


12  Teaching  Geography. 

wealth,  if  not  their  very  existence,  to  their  close- 
ness to  the  coal  fields  of  northern  England.  St. 
Etienne,  Rouen,  and  Lille  owe  their  manufacturing' 
prestige  to  their  nearness  to  the  coal  fields  of  Prance; 
while  Lyons  revels  in  its  silken  wealth,  simply  be- 
cause Pope  Clement  V,  who  introduced  sericulture 
into  Prance,  resided  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  multiply  illustrations. 
Those  given  will  suggest  many  others  to  the  thought- 
ful student  of  geography.  And  if  he  is  not  satisfied 
with  a  superficial  view  of  this  subject,  but  is  deter- 
mined to  trace  results  to  their  causes,  he  will  see 
that  position  or  place  is  the  most  potent  factor  in 
determining  the  location  of  manufacturing  centers. 


The  Content  of  Geography.  13 


CHAPTER 


THE   CONTENT   OF   GEOGRAPHY. 

Having- attempted  to  show  that  the  idea  of  place 
is  the  foundation  on  which  geography  rests,  I  next 
call  attention  to  the  materials  which  enter  into  the 
construction  of  the  science.  It  has  already  been  said 
that  these  consist  of  geographical  ideas  acquired  by 
a  proper  study  of  the  home  neighborhood;  although 
it  is  admitted  that  a  few  of  them  may  not  be  found 
in  every  vicinity,  yet  the  number  of  such  is  small. 
The  claim  urged  here  is  that  geography  has  ideas 
enough  of  its  own  with  which  to  rear  a  substantial 
edifice,  without  receiving  or  taking  from  other  stud- 
ies. All  foreign  materials  are  used  to  adorn  and 
beautify  the  structure.  They  add  to  its  grace  and 
symmetry,  but  are  not  necessary  to  its  strength  or 
durability.  The  content  of  geography  proper  is 
given  below,  in  part. 

The   ideas   which    belong   to   land  and 
Classification  ,.,  ...  , .        . .  ,. 

f  El         t      water  alike  are  position,  direction,  dis 

tance,  form,  surface,  color,  and  map-rep- 
resentation, including  sand  modeling  and  all  other 
methods  of  expressing  form.  Those  that  belong 
'especially  to  the  land  are  hemisphere,  continent, 
island,  peninsula,  promontory,  headland,  cape,  isth- 
mus, shore,  beach,  cliff,  plain,  prairie,  steppe,  marsh, 
woodland,  dale,  glade,  plateau,  mountain  system, 
chain,  range,  group,  peak,  crag,  precipice,  hill,  vol- 


14  Teaching  Geography. 

cano,  crater,  slope,  watershed,  valley,  glen,  delta, 
gorge,  chasm,  gully,  and  canyon. 

The  ideas  which  pertain  to  water  are  mobility, 
ocean,  sea,  gulf,  bay,  sound,  channel,  strait,  estuary, 
currents,  tides  (spring  and  neap),  ebb,  flow,  waves, 
crest,  trough,  rivers,  formation  of,  source,  course, 
right  bank,  left  bank,  wearing  bank,  building  bank, 
velocity, cataract, falls,  rapids,  bed,  tributary, mouth, 
vapor,  evaporation,  condensation,  clouds,  mist,  fog, 
dew,  rain,  springs  (hot  and  cold),  geysers,  frost,  hail, 
snow,  avalanche,  ice,  glacier,  iceberg,  and  icefloe. 

To  the  atmosphere  belong  fluidity,  expansibility, 
compressibility,  heat,  cold,  winds,  (constant,  peri- 
odical, variable,)  cyclone,  hurricane,  typhoon,  etesian 
and  simoom;  while  weight  belongs  to  the  three  ele- 
ments, and  motion  to  water  and  air. 

This  classification  is  not  perfect.  Some  ideas, 
such  as  evaporation,  condensation,  and  a  few  others, 
cling  with  one  hand  to  the  water  and  with  the  other 
to  the  atmosphere,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  in 
every  instance  which  hand  should  loosen  its  grasp. 
It  is  also  probable  that  several  ideas  have  been  omit- 
ted, as  it  was  thought  better  to  omit  some  than  to 
insert  any  that  did  not  properly  belong  in  the  list. 

Notwithstanding  this  intentional  economy,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  constructive  imagination  can  find 
here  abundant  material  with  which  to  build  a  men- 
Use  of  the  tal  picture  of  any  country  which  the 
Imagination,  pupil  may  be  studying,  and  the  making 
of  correct  mental  pictures  lies  at  the  base  of  all  true  study 
of  geography.  But  as  a  building  made  of  bricks  or 
stones  placed  loosely  upon  each  other,  without 
cement  or  mortar  to  hold  them  firmly  in  place,  would 


The  Content  of  Geograjrfiy.  15 

be  in  danger  of  falling  and  killing  or  maiming  the  oc- 
cupants, so  a  system  of  geographical  teachings,  in 
which  the  facts,  or  ideas,  are  not  held  in  their  proper 
position  by  the  causal  relation,  is  liable  to  topple 
over,  burying  the  pupils  beneath  the  debris.  The  fall 
of  the  structure  may  not  kill  them,  but  it  is  reason- 
ably certain  to  crush  out  all  interest  in  the  study, 
and  lead  them  to  regard  it  with  dislike,  if  not  with 
loathing. 

Use  of  Other  It  is  conceded  that  a  house  consisting  of 
Sciences.  bare  walls  and  a  roof,  no  matter  how 

well  they  may  be  constructed, is  not  an  inviting  home. 
These  are  the  essentials,  however,  without  which 
no  amount  of  furnishing  or  adornment  would  avail  to 
shelter  the  inhabitants  from  the  inclemency  of  the 
weather.  But  in  order  to  make  the  building  a  desir- 
able home,  the  walls  and  floors  must  be  covered, 
and  the  rooms  furnished  with  grace  and  elegance. 
So  botany  spreads  rich  carpets,  beautified  with  lilies, 
roses,  and  violets,  and  bordered  with  groves  of  ever- 
changing  colors;  it  also  frescoes  the  walls  in  tra- 
ceries of  the  most  pleasing  form  and  delicate  tinting. 
Astronomy  lights  up  the  edifice  and  causes  the  con- 
tributions made  by  botany  to  appear  with  added 
splendor.  Zoology  furnishes  animals  to  be  the  as- 
sociates, friends,  and  servants  of  those  who  are  to 
occupy  the  dwelling;  and  manufacture  takes  of  the 
materials  provided  by  botany  and  zoology,  and  with 
skillful  fingers  fashions  them  into  pleasing  and  use- 
ful forms;  while  commerce  stands  ready  to  furnish 
anything  that  may  be  lacking.  And  so  the  house  is 
built  and  furnished,  a  fit  home  for  him  who  is  to  be 
its  lord  and  master. 


16  Teaching  Geography. 

E  th  Lif  "But,"  says  the  doubter,  "botany  has 
plant-life  for  its  central  idea,  zoology, 
animal-life,  and  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  geog- 
raphy has  a  corresponding  central  idea  around  which 
may  be  grouped  its  facts,  what  has  thus  far  been 
said  goes  for  naught."  This  condition  seems  hard 
but  in  reality  it  is  not  so.  If  life  is  a  mutual  ex- 
change of  relations,*  and  most  scientists  will  admit 
the  correctness  of  the  definition,  then  the  earth  has 
life;  at  least  it  exhibits  the  phenomena  of  life,  and 
we  are  justified  in  taking  earth-life  as  the  central 
idea  in  geography.  It  is  not  claimed  that  this  life 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  plant  or  animal;  but  it  is 
claimed  that  it  is  the  basis  of  both  of  these  forms 
and  that  without  it  neither  could  exist. 
Evidences  We  are  so  accustomed  to  hearing  the 
of  Life.  earth  spoken  of  as  a  mass  of  lifeless  mat- 

ter, that  it  may  sound  strange  to  hear  it  classed  as 
a  living  organism.  And  yet  if  it  has  not  life  it  has 
many  of  the  appearances  of  life.  Its  molecules  have 
their  sympathies  and  antipathies,  their  affinities 
even,  and  show  them  in  an  unmistakable  manner. 
"The  magnetic  needle  always  points  to  the  magnetic 
pole,  is  agitated  on  the  approach  of  a  piece  of  iron, 
and  fairly  jumps  under  the  fire  of  the  northern 
lights."*  A  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  of  the 
atmosphere  at  any  one  point  causes  the  air  in  the 
adjoining  regions  to  move  promptly  towards  the 
center  of  disturbance.  The  common  gas,  used  in 
lighting  our  homes,  may  escape  from  the  jet  and  fill 
the  room  with  a  deadly  poison  instead  of  cheerful 
light,  unless  there  is  heat  to  seal  its  union  with  the 
oxygen. 

*Guyot,  Earth  and  Man. 


The  Content  of  Geography.  17 

The  water  rushes  down  the  mountain  side,  so  full 
of  joy  and  gladness  that  it  cannot  behave  itself  so- 
berly and  sedately,  as  becomes  a  "dead  thing,"  but 
youth-like  it  goes  skipping  and  jumping,  singing 
and  dancing,  on  its    way   to  the   ocean.     And  the 

ocean  itself,  how  often  have  I  heard  it 
Tlie  Water.  ..     ,  .    ,  1*1 

crooning  its  low,  weird  song  to  lure  the 

fisherman  out  upon  its  bosom?  And  having  him  in 
its  power,  have  I  not  seen  it  lash  itself  into  a  fury, 
erect  its  crested  billowrs,  and  dash  him  lifeless  upon 
the  shore;  or,  in  very  spite,  bury  him  in  some  one 
of  its  dark  caverns,  so  that  his  sorrowing  friends 
could  not  have  even  the  sad  satisfaction  of  planting 
flowers  upon  his  grave? 

Where,  in  plant  or  animal,  can  be  found  a  more 
beneficent  or  complete  circulation  of  life-giving  fluid 
than  in  this  so-called  inanimate  earth  of  ours?  The 
waters  leave  the  ocean  and  are  borne  on  the  wings 
Earth  of  the  wind  to  the  land.     They  fall  upon 

Circulation,  its  arid  surface,  heal  its  wounds,  restore 
its  wasted  energies,  and  cause  it  to  thrill  and  throb 
in  every  fiber  of  its  being,  until  it  is  covered  with 
beauty  and  utility.  Having  performed  their  mission 
of  invigorating  the  land  and  transforming  its  dor- 
mant potencies  into  energizing  activities,  the  waters 
enter  upon  their  return  journey.  Through  rill,  brook, 
and  river  they  course,  carrying  with  them  all  dele- 
terious and  effete  matter  found  along  the  way,  and 
which,  if  left  behind,  would  breed  disease  and  per- 
haps lead  to  death.  Prom  farm,  village,  and  city 
they  carry  away  the  germs  of  diphtheria,  typhoid 
fever,  and  cholera,  and  enter  the  ocean  a  black-  tor- 
rent of  venous  blood,  to  be  again  sent  forth  a  pure, 
arterial  current. 


18  Teaching  Geography. 

The  atmosphere,  too,  manifests  signs  of  life,  and 
in  its  operations  shows  itself  a  true  American,  a 
democrat  of  the  democrats.  It  is  opposed  to  all 
class  distinctions  and  social  inequalities  It  car. 
The  ries  the  waters  to  all  alike,  unless  inter- 

Atmosphere,  fered  with  by  the  sun  or  thwarted  in  its 
purpose  by  the  grasping  of  some  monopolistic  moun- 
tain system.  It  fans  the  brow  of  peasant  and  prince 
alike,  favors  an  equal  distribution  of  heat  and  cold, 
and  drives  the  deadly  microbes  from  the  hut  of  the 
laborer  as  gladly  as  it  does  from  the  palace  of  the 
trust-king.  This  equality  it  tries  to  preserve  with 
moderation;  but  if  necessar}'  it  can  be  as  noisy  as  a 
ward  politician,  and  as  destructive  as  "an  army 
with  banners. " 

These  outward  manifestations  of  life  are  not  the 
only  ones  that  exist.  A  thoughtful  study  of  the  form, 
position,  and  arrangement  of  the  great  land  masses, 
that  is  of  the  anatomy  of  the  globe,  will  show  a  plan 
of  life  and  of  growth  which  can  be  discovered  only 
by  an  insight  into  the  physiological  functions  per- 
formed by  these  anatomical  parts.  These  functions, 
according  to  Professor  Guyot,  are,  in  part,  "the  fit- 
ting of  the  earth  to  be  the  abode  of  man,  and  the 
theater  for  the  action  of  human  societies;  each  con- 
tinent being  especially  fitted  for  the  education  of 
humanity  at  a  particular  stage  of  its  development." 


Educational  Value  of  Geography.  19 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  EDUCATIONAL,  VALUE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  from  what  was  said  in  the 
last  chapter  that  the  writer  would  exclude  from 
geography  everything  that  does  not  especially  be- 
long to  the  so-called  inanimate  earth.  On  the  con- 
trary he  is  glad  to  include  by  the  term  all  facts  of 
climatology,  physics,  botany,  zoology,  and  any  other 
science  that  helps  in  making  the  earth  a  fit  dwelling 
place  for  man, — and  man  himself,  "to  the  fashion- 
ing of  whose  destiny,  the  whole  animate  and  inan- 
imate creation  is  tributary,''  and  without  whom  as 
the  most  important  thought,  next  to  God,  the  study 
of  nature  wrould  have  no  interest  to  geographer, 
biologist,  chemist,  or  physicist. 

Geography  What  he  does  object  to  is  the  view  so 
A  Science.  frequently  presented  that  geography,  in 
and  of  itself,  is  not  w7orthy  to  be  ranked  as  a  science, 
and  must  be  satisfied  with  being  regarded  as  an 
aggregation  of  fragments  from  several  sciences 
which  it  has  subsidized  to  cover  its  poverty  and  en- 
able it  to  pass  as  a  charming  and  useful  member  of 
the  community. 

It  is  time  such  views  were  discarded.  It  may 
have  been  excusable  to  have  held  them  in  the  past, 
but  with  the  teachings  of  Guyot,  Ritter,  and  other 
masters  so  accessible,  there  is  no  sufficient  excuse 
for  such  ignorance  at  present.     Through  the  labor 


20  Teach  big  Geography. 

of  these  men,  geography  has  become  an  individual, 
using  the  other  sciences  to  illustrate  its  individuality, 
and  having  for  the  central  principle  of  its  being  the 
relation  of  all  the  phenomena  and  forms  of  nature 
to  the  human  race.* 

There  is  a  diversity  of  opinions  as  to  the  edu- 
cational value  of  geography.  Those  who  belittle  its 
value,  while  admitting  its  usefulness  as  a  knowledge 
Objections  study,  assert  that  "if  there  be  mental 
of  the  Critics,  exercise,  and  good  training  to  be  got  out 
of  the  study,  they  are  secondary  in  importance,  while 
in  language  and  mathematics  these  are  first. "  '  'Geog- 
raphy, "  they  claim,  "is  the  one  department  of  teach- 
ing in  which  mere  information,  as  distinguished  from 
scientific  method  or  intellectual  training,  is  rela- 
tively of  the  most  importance. '  't  But,  as  if  conscious 
that  these  sweeping  statements  are  unwarranted, 
they  admit  that,  "though  much  of  the  result  we  hope 
to  gain  belongs  to  the  region  of  memory  only,  we 
shall  be  all  the  better  for  inquiring'  whether  there 
is  not  also  room  here  for  an  appeal  to  the  judgment 
and  to  the  imagination;  whether,  in  short,  geography 
may  not  be  a  really  educational  instrument, as  well  as 
a  mass  of  facts  which  have  to  be  mastered  and  com- 
mitted to  the  memory."  This  last  statement  is  com- 
forting. It  shows  that  the  critics  have  penetrated 
the  fog  that  obscured  their  vision  and  have  caught  a 
glimpse  of  what  geography  really  is.  The  glimpse, 
it  is  true,  is  a  feeble  one,  as  the  skirts  of  the  fog- 
clouds  still  hinder  the  view  from  breaking  upon  their 
sight  in  all  its  splendor.     It  is  a  great  improvement 

*Rittcr,  Introduction  to  Comparative  Geography.    Page 27. 
tFitch:  Lectures  on  Teaching.     Page  312. 


Educational  Value  of  Geography.  21 

on  their  previous  condition,  however,  and  improve- 
ment is  always  a  fit  cause  for  rejoicing*. 

The  committee  of  ten,  in  their  excellent  report, 
treat  the  subject  of  geography  somewhat  exhaus- 
Committee  tively,  and  on  the  whole  judiciously. 
of  Ten.  They  regard  it  as  of  equal  importance 

with  arithmetic  in  the  primary  and  secondary 
schools,  and  entitled  to  equal  time.  This  may 
be  regarded  as  another  way  of  saying  that  it  has 
equal  educative  value.  But  while  the  report  as  a 
whole  is  a  thoughtful  and  valuable  document,  it 
may  be  said  by  way  of  parenthesis,  that  Professor 
Houston's  exceptions  to  the  finding  of  the  ma- 
jority are  well  taken  and  worthy  of  careful  con- 
sideration. There  is  no  good  reason  for  making 
physiography  a  distinct  department  of  geography. 
The  reasoning  of  the  majority  on  this  point  is  not 
convincing.  The  advantage  of  carrying  speciali- 
zation in  studies  to  the  same  extent  that  distribu- 
tion of  labor  is  carried  in  the  industrial  world  is  not 
very  apparent,  even  if  it  is  claimed  that  our  high 
civilization  is  due  more  to  this  one  fact  than  to  any 
other  in  the  economic  history  of  the  world.  In  both 
cases  extreme  specialization  may  lead  to  greater 
skill  and  expertness  within  a  narrow  range,  but  it 
weakens  the  power  of  the  individual,  as  it  unfits  him 
to  see  the  relation  of  the  several  parts  of  the  work  to 
each  other  and  to  the  completed  whole;  and  geog- 
raphy is  pre-eminently  the  study  of  relations. 
Opinion  of  This  is  necessarily  so,  for  as  Kilter  so 
Professor  happily  expresses  it,  "It  is  a  knowledge 
Houston.  0f  j-]le  relations  of  things  that  leads  to  a 

scientific  interpretation;''*  and  notwithstanding  all 

♦Ritter;  Introduction  to  Comparative  Geography.    Page  15. 


22  Teaching  Geography. 

that  may  be  said  to  the  contrary,  geography  lends 
itself  readily  to  a  scientific  method  of  treatment;  in- 
deed, without  such  method  there  can  be  no  true  study 
of  the  subject.  Consequently  as  regards  physiog- 
raphy, Professor  Houston's  views  are  wiser  than 
those  of  the  majority  of  the  committee.  It  is  advis- 
able, as  he  clearly  shows,  that  the  facts  and  processes 
embraced  under  the  term  should  be  taught  as  a  part 
of  physical  geography  in  the  first  year  of  the  high 
school  work.  He  might  justly  have  said  that  they 
may  profitably  be  introduced,  to  quite  an  extent,  in 
the  grammar  and  intermediate  grades,  and  to  a  lesser 
degree  in  the  primary  school.  They  will  be  so  intro- 
duced by  every  good  teacher,  even  though  the  for- 
mal arrangement  of  the  curriculum  may  decree 
otherwise. 

Opinion  of  Commissioner  Harris,  in  his  report  on 
Dr.  Harris.  correlation  of  studies,  regards  the  edu- 
cational value  of  geography  as  very  great,  both  as  a 
means  of  obtaining  valuable  information  and  as  an 
instrument  for  mental  discipline.  The  knowledge 
which  it  imparts,  he  considers  of  great  usefulness  to 
the  citizen  in  his  daily  life;  while  the  disciplinary 
value  is  so  great  that  he  places  geography  "second 
only  to  arithmetic  among  the  branches  that  corre- 
late man  to  nature."  This  secondary  position  may, 
with  justice,  be  questioned.  We  will  let  it  go  at 
that,  however,  for  the  present,  being  duly  thankful 
that  geography  is  permitted  to  stand  so  close  to 
arithmetic,  which  has  heretofore  been  the  autocrat 
of  the  common  school  curriculum,  but  which,  if  the 
signs  of  the  times  are  not  misleading,  will  soon  be 
compelled  to  assume  a  more  modest  demeanor. 


Educational  Value  of  Geography.  23 

The  importance  of  geography  as  an  introduction 
to  the  study  of  climatology,  botany,  and  zoology, 
was  discussed  in  the  previous  pages,  and  needs  no 
further  elaboration.  It  was  shown  that  it  is  the  soil 
in  which  their  roots  are  firmly  imbedded,  and  from 
which  they  draw  the  principal  share  of  their  nour- 
ishment. It  is  difficult  to  see  how  there  can  be 
a  scholarly  treatment  of  the  flora  and  fauna  of  a 
country  without  careful  attention  to  its  geography. 
Bearing  upon  Tne  bearing  of  geography  on  manu- 
Manufac-  factures  and  commerce  has   also    been 

tures.  pointed  out,  and  it  can  be  shown  that 

its  influence  upon  agriculture,  upon  which  all  cul- 
ture depends,  is  equally  as  great.  And  geologists 
admit  that  its  connection  with  geology  is  so  inti- 
mate that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  tell  where  the 
one  leaves  off  and  the  other  begins. 

No  study  has  in  itself  the  entire  end  and  aim-  of 
its  being.  Every  subject  in  a  well-arranged  school 
course  is  valuable  not  only  because  of  the  facts  it 
contributes  to  the  general  stock,  and  of  the  power 
acquired  in  obtaining  and  properly  relating  those 
facts,  but  also  because  it  leads  to  one  above  and 
beyond  itself.  It  is  a  prophecy  of  something  higher; 
and  unless  it  prepares  the  pupil  to  realize  the  proph- 
ecy, it  fails  of  its  purpose.  Geography  is  gener- 
ally admitted  to  be  an  excellent  preparation,  not 
only  for  the  subjects  already  named,  but  for  the 
study  of  history  as  well.  It  is  true  that  the  facts 
of  history  can  be  learned  without  the  aid  of  geog- 
raphy, but  unrelated  facts  do  not  constitute  knowl- 
edge, or  if  they  do  it  is  not  abiding  knowledge. 
There  may,  however,  be  other  relations  than  that 


24  Teaching  Geography. 

of  place,  yet  the  drama  of  history  requires  a  suit- 
able stage  for  its  acting.  This  stage  is  the  earth 
of  which  geography  is  the  description.  There  is 
too  much  teaching  of  history  up  in  the  air;  and  al- 
though cloudland  may  be  a  fit  dwelling  place  for 
the  dreamer,  it  is  not  for  the  student. 
Influence  of  Many  illustrations  might  be  given  show- 
Geography  ing  the  influence  of  geography  upon 
Upon  History,  history,  a  few  must  suffice.  It  is  a 
remarkable  fact,  pointed  out  by  the  late  Professor 
Guyot,  that  the  great  civilizations  of  the  world  all 
originated  in  the  northern  continents,  and  that  as 
far  as  known  no  civilization  worth  mentioning  orig- 
inated in  any  of  the  southern  ones,  unless  it  be  that 
of  Egypt;  but  that  in  all  probability  was  an  overflow 
from  Asia.  He  ascribes  this  fact  largely  to  the 
character  of  their  coastlines. 

Influence  The    contours    of  the    northern   conti- 

of  Contour.  nents  are  irregular.  Great  peninsulas 
extend  into  the  oceans  and  are  bathed  in  vapor  which 
renders  the  soil  fertile  and  thus  causes  it  to  pro- 
duce bountiful  harvests.  Gulfs  and  bays  penetrate 
the  land,  forming  gateways  by  which  the  life-giving 
fluid  reaches  well  into  the  hearts  of  the  continents. 
These  indentations  not  only  form  gateways  for  the 
moisture,  they  also  become  common  fishing  grounds 
for  the  inhabitants  along  their  shores.  Casual  meet- 
ings when  in  pursuit  of  their  scaly  prey  lead  to  a 
comparison  of  boats,  nets,  and  fishing  appliances  in 
general,  which  in  turn  leads  to  an  improvement  in 
the  appliances  of  all  the  parties.  Barter  soon 
springs  into  existence,  and  in  the  course  of  time 
becomes  worthy  of  being  called    commerce.     This 


Educational  Value  of  Geography.  25 

leads  to  a  fuller  and  more  general  exchange  of  rela- 
tions by  which  the  conditions  of  the  people  are 
improved,  both  physically  and  intellectually,  and 
civilization  advances  with  sure  and  steady  steps. 

Their  irregular  coastline  may  be  the  cause  of  this 
advancement,  or  it  may  not;  but  it  is  certain  that 
there  is,  at  least,  a  remarkable  coincidence  between 
the  contour  of  the  continents  and  the  character  of 
their  indigenous  civilizations.  Europe,  the  most 
irregular  of  the  continents,  has  played  the  most  im- 
portant part  in  the  world's  history,  and  it  is  there 
that  intellectual  thought  has  reached  its  high-water 
mark.  Greece  is  still  the  schoolmaster  of  the  world, 
especially  in  philosophy,  poetry,  and  sculpture. 
And  those  who  would  gain  renown  in  the  depart- 
ments of  metaphysics  and  pedagogy  hasten  to  the 
land  of  Kant,  Hegel,  and  Herbart. 

Asia,  too,  had  its  civilizations  and  performed  a 
notable  part  in  history.  Not  as  brilliant  as  that 
performed  by  Europe,  neither  is  its  coastline  as  ir- 
regular; while  Africa,  with  the  most  regular  outline 
of  all,  is  still  the  "dark  continent.  "  The  two  Amer- 
icas and  Australia  had  their  civilization  imported, 
and  the  success  of  the  transplanted  article  is  de- 
pendent somewhat  on  the  original  stock.  Yet  the 
continent  of  the  north  has  already  demonstrated  its 
superiority  over  those  of  the  south. 
Influence  of  Relief  is  also  a  prominent  factor  in  the 
Relief.  civilization  of  a  nation.     The  early  pre- 

eminence of  Greece  was  not  due  entirely  to  the 
character  of  its  coast  line,  or  to  the  inherent  genius 
of  its  people;  it  can  be  traced  in  part  to  the  fact  that 
the  country  was  traversed  in  various  directions  by 


26  Teaching  Geography. 

ranges  of  mountains  far  enough  apart  to  leave  room 
between  them  for  the  rise  and  growth  of  small 
states.  The  mountains  were  sufficiently  high  and 
rugged  to  form  natural  boundaries,  but  not  to  hinder 
communication. 

Each  state  could  see  what  the  others  were  doing, 
and,  being  determined  to  excel,  a  spirit  of  emulation 
was  begotten  that  carried  these  city-states  to  the 
pinnacle  of  ancient  civilization.  So  many  are  the 
illustrations  that  might  be  given  showing  the  import- 
ance of  contour  and  relief  in  determining  the  historic 
standing  of  nations,  that  the  bare  recital,  it  is  feared, 
wrould  weary  the  reader;  in  mercy,  therefore,  most  of 
them  are  omitted. 

Influence  of  Without  a  careful  study  of  the  relief 
River  Basins,  and  drainage  of  France,  the  student  of 
history  will  find  it  difficult  to  understand  why  the 
basin  of  the  Loire  has  been  the  theater  of  so  many 
great  events.  Here  Caesar  besieged  Avaricum,  and 
notwithstanding  the  stoutest  efforts  of Vercingetorix, 
captured  the  city  and  slaughtered  forty  thousand 
of  the  inhabitants;  here  Attila,  at  the  head  of  five 
thousand  Huns,  was  stopped,  defeated  in  a  great 
battle,  and  compelled  to  retreat  to  the  swamps  of 
Hungary;  here  Clovis  defeated  Syagrius,  and  firmly 
established  the  power  of  the  Franks;  heje  stood  the 
Christian  and  Moslem,  face  to  face,  when  the  blows 
of  Charles  Martel  sent  the  broken  remnants  of  the 
Saracenic  hosts  reeling  across  the  Pyrenees,  after 
leaving  three  hundred  thousand  of  their  slain  on  the 
field  of  battle;  here  the  Black  Prince  defeated  the 
French  and  captured  their  king;  and  it  was  here 
that  Joan  of  Arc  compelled  the  English  to  raise  the 


Educational  Value  of  Geography.  27 

siege  of  Orleans,  an  event  that  led  to  the  crowning 
of  the  Dauphin  and  to  her  own  execution  as  a 
witch. 

This  famous  river-basin  was  the  scene  of  other 
stirring  events,  especially  in  the  wars  between  the 
Catholics  and  Protestants;  but  enough  has  been 
given  to  cause  the  thoughtful  student  to  inquire  why 
this  seemingly  out-of-the-way  corner  of  Europe 
should  have  been  the  battlefield  of  Roman  and  Bar- 
barian, of  the  cross  and  the  Crescent,  and  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  and  the  Gaul?  He  will  find  the  an- 
swer in  the  position  of  this  basin  with  reference  to 
those  of  the  Garonne  and  the  Seine,  which  caused 
a  portion  of  it  to  be  a  part  of  the  highway  between 
northern  Europe  and  Spain. 

The  teacher  of  history  is  often  called  upon  to  an- 
swer such  questions  as  these.  "Why  was  it  that 
Washington's  forces  at  Morristown,  although  not 
daring  to  face  the  British,  yet  compelled  them  to  go 
by  way  of  Chesapeake  Bay  in  order  to  reach  Phila- 
delphia?" "Why  was  Grant  at  Cairo  able  to 
threaten  the  lines  of  the  Confederates  from  the  Mis- 
sissippi to  Nashville,  and  even  farther?"  And  "how 
did  it  happen  that  Johnson  with  his  comparatively 
small  army  caused  Sherman  so  much  trouble  in  his 
march  from  Chattanooga  to  Atlanta?"  The  answers 
to  these  and  to  all  similar  questions  are  found  in  the 
geography  of  the  several  localities. 


28  Teaching  Geography. 


CHAPTER    IV. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  VALUE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

So  far  the  educational  value  of  geography  has  been 
pointed  out  only  as  it  serves  as  an  introduction  to 
the  intelligent  study  of  other  subjects.  It  would 
be  a  mistake,  however,  to  infer  from  this  that  its 
worth  is  confined  to  the  service  it  renders  as  hand- 
maiden to  others,  however  useful  it  may  be  in  that 
capacity.  It  will  be  found,  on  a  thoughtful  consid- 
eration of  the  subject,  that  it  has  a  high  psycho, 
logical  value;  that  as  an  instrument  for  mental 
discipline  it  is  unsurpassed, 
-jt — Perception.  Jit  affords  an  excellent  opportunity  for 
the  training  of  the  observing  powers,  as  in  its  early 
stage  it  deals  entirely  with  objects  that  can  be  found 
in  nearly  every  community,  and  that  may  be  seen 
by  the  young  tyro.  For  this  reason  it  should  appear 
early  in  the  course,  when  the  senses  are  most  active 
and  eager  to  grasp  everything  that  comes  within 
reach~1  Unfortunately  beginners  are  not  always  set 
to  studying  geography  itself,  but  to  the  study  of 
words  and  maps  which  are  merely  symbols  of  geog. 
raphy.  A  book  is  placed  in  their  hands  before  they 
are  prepared  to  put  meaning  into  what  it  contains. 
Or  if  the  teaching  is  oral  it  is  of  the  straight-jacket 
variety.  The  pupil  is  compelled  to  express  his 
thoughts,  if  he  has  any,  in  phraseology  which  the 
teacher  has  copied  from  some  book  and  written  on 


Psychological  Value  of  Geography.  29 

the  blackboard,  instead  of  being-  permitted  the  free- 
dom of  expression  which  is  so  natural  to  children 
and  which  should  characterize  all  teaching"  in  the 
primary  school.  This  course  smothers  all  spon- 
taneity, all  interest,  and  the  child  becomes  truly, 
"a  chip  of  the  old  block."  Geography  is  not  to 
blame  for  this  sad  condition  of  things,  neither  is 
the  child.  The  blame  properly  belongs  to  the 
teacher,  who  is  so  occupied  in  trying  to  hide  his 
ignorance  of  child  nature  and  of  the  nature  of  the 
subject  which  he  is  trying  to  teach,  that  he  has  no 
time  to  study  either  the  one  or  the  other. 

[Geography  is  also  useful  in  exercising 
em  ry.  ^^  strengthening  the  memory^]  Some 
teachers  belittle  the  office  of  memory,  and  in  so  do- 
ing consider  themselves  worthy  of  praise.  This 
is  a  mistake  and  arises  from  a  misconception  as  to 
what  memory  is.  They  either  regard  memorizing  as 
synonymous  with  "learning  by  heart,"  a  process 
which  "may  be  entirely  sensuous,  and  which  often 
produces  weariness  of  mind  rather  than  mind  activ- 
ity;" or  else  they  consider  the  memory  a  receptacle, 
a  kind  of  storehouse  in  which  all  sorts  of  odds  and 
ends  are  gathered,  as  old  furniture,  unhinged  trunks, 
and  superannuated  articles  of  clothing",  are  stowed 
away  in  the  garret.  This,  if  worthy  of  being  called 
memory  at  all,  is  what  may  be  termed  verbal  mem- 
ory, and  is  of  little  worth,  especially  if  there  are 
no  thoughts  back  of  the  words. 

But  that  power  of  the  mind  by  which  one  is  en- 
abled to  hold  related  thoughts  in  their  proper  set- 
ting, so  that  when  the  occasion  for  using  them 
arises,  they  can  be  re-collected  and  made  to  appear 


30  Teaching  Geography. 

promptly,  accompanied  by  their  relatives,  instead 

of  making  a  tardy  appearance  an  hour  or  two  after, 

when  they  are  not  needed,  must  be  admitted  to  be  an 

important  stage  of  mental  development. 

~    .. .  Kant  declares  memory  to  be  the  chief 

Testimony.  J 

auxiliary  of  the  understanding,*  and 
conjointly  with  observation  it  lies  at  the  base  of  all 
mental  development.  It  enriches  the  learner  with 
the  wealth  of  the  past,  and  enables  him  to  enter  upon 
his  inheritance,  and  use  it  in  acquiring  still  greater 
treasures,  instead  of  being  a  pauper  confined  to  the 
narrow  limits  of  the  present.  It  is  a  pitiable  sight 
to  behold  a  man  who  has  traveled  far,  read  much,  and 
perhaps  studied  profoundly,  and  yet  is  not  able  to  re- 
call his  facts  or  conclusions  when  he  needs  them 
most. 

Furthermore,  what  can  one  whose  memory  is 
feeble  from  the  lack  of  proper  exercise,  or  defective 
from  any  cause,  have  to  reflect  upon?  For,  as  Pro- 
fessor Sully  so  clearly  expresses  it:  "Unless  the  mind 
is  stored  with  a  good  stock  of  concrete  impressions 
there  will  be  no  materials  for  the  imaginative  or 
inventive  faculty  to  combine,  or  for  the  understand- 
ing to  reduce  to  general  concepts."!  But  they  are  not 
in  the  mind  unless  they  are  available  for  use,  hence 
a  person  with  a  very  feeble  memory  has  but  scanty 
food  for  thought.  He  may  appear  thoughtful,  but 
in  reality  he  is  in  a  reverie,  and  his  thoughts  are  not 
worth  a  penny.  The  value  of  geography  in  exercis- 
ing the  memory  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  deals  with 
related  truths,  or  ought  to,  and  that  these  truths  are 


♦Quoted  in  Sully's  Hand  Book.     Page  172. 
tTeachers'  Hand  Book  of  Psychology.    Page  172. 


Psychological  Value  of  Geography.  31 

associated  with  objects  that  lie  in  the  pupils'  field  of 

vision.  _ „ 

/  By  the  proper  study  of  geography  the 
Imagination!^.  J      .     \.       .      ,        J\,  ,       *1     •      ^ 

imagination  is  strengthened  and  trained. 

And  it  is  thought  by  some  that  if  it  performed  no 
other  function  than  that  of  widening  and  deepen- 
ing this  power  of  the  mind,  it  still  would  be  well 
worth  studying:~7  Johonnot  regards  imagination  as 
"a  highly  practical  faculty,  the  one  which  more  than 
any  other  enables  man  to  master  the  forces  of  Na- 
ture, and  raise  himself  above  the  domain  of  sense." 
He  considers  it  "the  moving  force  in  every  step  of 
human  progress,  by  constructing  ideals  which  are 
higher  and  better  than  any  that  have  yet  been  real- 
ized."* 

If  these  statements  are  accepted  as  true,  it  must 
be  admitted  that  any  study  which  tends  to  keep 
the  imagination  from  becoming  morbid  and  unhealthy 
by  dwelling  too  much  upon  the  emotions,  and  tones 
it  up,  as  it  were,  by  fixing  it  upon  beautiful  and  varied 
forms,  is  of  great  educative  value.  This  geography 
does  in  a  marked  degree.  The  constructive  imagi- 
nation, the  artist  to  whose  skill  and  fidelity  we  owe 
most  of  our  geographical  knowledge,  is  kept  busily 
at  work.  Its  office  in  this  connection  is  to  build 
correct  images  of  the  unseen  from  what  is  known 
of  the  seen;  and  since  but  little  of  the  world  is  seen 
by  children,  the  accuracy  of  their  knowledge  con- 
cerning it  must  depend  largely  on  this  image-making 
power;  hence  the  need  that  it  be  properly  exercised 
and  trained. 

They  may  never  see  the  Ganges  river  nor  the 


♦Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching.    Page  I-.'. 


32  Teaching  Geography. 

stately  temples  that  rear  their  domes  and  minarets 
above  its  placid  waters,  yet  we  do  not  wish  to  have 
them  grow  up  in  ignorance  of  either.  So  we  aid 
them  to  build  a  Ganges  of  their  own  from  the  geo 
graphical  facts  acquired  by  the  home  stream,  and 
adorn  its  banks  with  religious  edifices  erected  out 
of  the  notions  obtained  from  the  study  of  the  home 
church.  1  Imagination  takes  these  concrete  notions, 
and  modifying  them  by  what  is  read,  by  the  instruc- 
tion given  by  the  teacher,  and  aided  by  maps  and 
pictures,  builds  them  into  ideal  forms.  It  is  in  this 
manner  that  we  acquire  the  greater  part  of  our  geo- 
graphical knowledge;  hence  the  imagination  is  kept 
constantly  active.  It  is  active,  too,  in  dealing  with 
objects  and  their  relations:  a  fact  which  compels  it 
to  take  upon  itself  a  certain  degree  of  sobriety  and 
moderation  instead  of  indulging  in  wild  flights  of 
fancyTT 

Reflection.  Leading  pshychologists  tell  us  that 
"The  detection  of  similarity  and  diversity  is  the 
fundamental  activity  that  underlies  all  thinking." 
If  this  is  true,  the  helpfulness  of  geography  in  build- 
ing up  the  understanding  must  be  evident,  as  a  true 
study  of  the  subject  involves  constant  comparison 
by  means  of  differences  and  resemblances.  Prom 
the  same  source  we  learn  that  "Inquiry  into  the 
cause  of  things  has  always  constituted  a  chief  part  of 
human  investigation."  In  the  study  of  no  subject 
does  the  question,  "Why?"  present  itself  more  per- 
sistently than  in  that  of  geography.  It  will  not 
down  until  it  is  answered  intelligently;  and  woe  to 
the  student  who  tries  to  dodge  it.  Leanness  of  soul 
will  be  his  portion,  and  dissatisfaction  his  insepar- 


Psychological  Value  of  Geography.  33 

Questions  able  companion.  It  is  Why?  Why?  con- 
Suggested,  stantly.  Why  is  not  the  state  of  Nevada 
as  well  watered  as  California?  Why  are  the  deserts 
of  equatorial  South  America  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Andes,  while  those  in  the  southern  part  are  on  the 
east  side?  Why  are  the  most  prosperous  countries 
of  Australia  in  the  eastern  and  the  southeastern 
parts  of  the  continent?  Why  do  the  trade  winds 
blow  toward  the  west,  and  why  do  the  simooms 
change  their  course  with  such  regularity?  Why  is 
it  that  in  the  three  northern  continents  the  types  re- 
semble each  other  so  closely,  both  in  the  vegetable 
and  animal  kingdoms,  that  only  the  practiced  eye  of 
the  scientist  can  detect  any  differences,  while  in  the 
southern  continents  the  types  have  almost  ceased 
to  have  anything  in  common?  Why  do  the  primi- 
tive races  of  the  Old  World  present  such  marked  dif- 
ferences; while  those  of  the  New  resemble  each  other 
so  closely  that  high  cheek  bones,  copper  color,  and 
straight,  black  hair,  are  characteristic  of  all  Indians 
from  the  Arctic  to  the  Antarctic  ocean? 
Testimony  of  These  questions,  selected  at  random, 
Dr.  Harris.  are  only  a  few  of  those  that  are  ever  in 
the  path  of  the  student,  yet  they  arc  sufficient  to 
show  that  geography  furnishes  abundant  opportunity 
for  tracing  effects  to  their  causes,  and  so  may  be  made 
very  helpful  in  training  the  judgmen^.  It  will  be 
found  so  helpful  that  I  feel  justified  in  closing  this 
division  of  the  subject  with  a  sentence  from  Dr. 
Harris.  "What  educative  value  there  is,"  he  says, 
•'in  geology,  meteorology,  zoology,  ethnology,  eco- 
nomics, history,  and  politics  is  to  be  found  in  the 
more  profound  study  of  geography,  and  to  a  pro- 


34  Teaching  Geography. 

portionate  extent,  in  the  study  of  its  merest  ele- 
ments. " 

Refining  There  is  one  other  point  on  which  a  few 

Influence  of  words  should  be  said.  They  are  needed, 
Geography.  as  the  point  is  usually  ignored  by  the 
teacher,  although  of  great  importance  to  the  chil- 
dren; I  refer  to  the  refining  influence  of  geography. 
No  subject  does  for  the  pupil  what  it  should  unless 
it  leaves  him  better,  as  well  as  wiser,  than  he  was 
before  entering  upon  its  study;  and  there  is  nothing 
that  more  surely  wins  to  goodness  than  conscious 
contact  with  the  beautiful.  The  teacher  should  con- 
stantly bear  in  mind  that  he  is  educating  human 
beings,  and  not  simply  arithmeticians,  geographers, 
grammarians,  or  historians;  and  any  teaching  that 
•does  not  touch  the  heart  of  the  pupil  and  make  it 
more  God-like  in  tenderness,  sympathy,  and  purity 
is,  to  say  the  least,  not  good  teaching.  Humanity 
is  greater  than  scholarship,  and  pains  should  be  taken 
to  make  it  as  beautiful  as  the  love  of  the  Father. 
The  Father  has  willed  it  so,  and  has  filled  the  earth 
with  beauty  and  sublimity — 'Shadows  of  Himself. 
How  Studied  The  study  of  geography  should,  in  the 
in  the  Lower  lower  grades  especially,  be  the  study  of 
Grades.  a  series  of  pictures  which  the  changing 

seasons  cause  to  passbefore  the  eyes  of  the  children. 
The  bright,  fresh  verdure,  the  budding  trees,  and  the 
opening  petals  of  spring;  the  billowy  meadows, 
ripening  wheat,  and  tasseled  corn  of  summer;  the 
golden  fruit,  dark-brown  oaks,  and  gorgeous  maples 
of  autumn;  and  the  sparkling  frost,  pendent  icicles, 
and  glistening  snow  of  winter,  all  have  their  charms. 
They  appeal  to  the  finer  nature  of  the  children,  and 


Psychological  Value  of  Geography.  35 

call  them  away  from  what  is  groveling  and  mean 
in  their  environments.  The  majestic  river  pursuing 
its  peaceful  way  to  the  ocean,  and  bearing  on  its 
bosom  the  commerce  of  the  nation,  and  the  glowing 
sunset  tinting  the  sky  with  golden  hues,  intensify  the 
yearning  after  the  beautiful.  While  the  gloomy  for- 
est, the  roaring  cataract,  and  the  solemn  mountain 
impress  the  pupils  with  the  sublimity  by  which  they 
are  surrounded,  and  tend  to  lift  their  thoughts  to 
Him  who  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  and 
filled  them  with  beauty  and  grandeur  for  the  bene- 
fit of  His  children. 

Prom  what  has  been  said,  we  see  that 
uramary.        geography  should  be  taught — 
*^1.  For   the   mental   discipline   that   may  be  ob- 
tained from  it. 

(/    2.  For  the  knowledge  it  contains. 
£    3.  For  its  value  in  connection  with  commerce. 
//  4.  Because  of  the  basis  it  affords   for  the  intel- 
ligent study  of  other  subjects. 

5.  It  should  be  taught  for  its  refining  influence. 


36  Teaching  Geography. 

CHAPTER   V. 


METHODS  OF   TEACHING. 


Two  There    are     two    general    methods    of 

nethods^of      teaching  geography,  the  analytic,  and 
the  synthetic,  each  of   which   in  prac- 


Teaching. 


tice,  admits  of  various  modifications./  Some  teach- 
ers consider  it  necessary  to  begin  the  study  with  a 
genera]  view  of  the  globe,  in  order  that  the  pupils 
may  see  the  relations  of  the  different  parts  to  each 
other,  and  of  each  part  to  the  whole7  Others,  while 
admitting  that  it  is  proper  to  begin  with  a  whole, 
declare  that  the  whole  should  be  a  hemisphere,  or  a 
continent,  as  the  entire  earth  is  too  large  for  the 
children  to  form  a  proper  concept  of  it,  at  this 
early  stage  of  their  progress.  The  criticism  is 
partly  just,  but  it  is  fully  as  difficult  for  them  to 
form  a  true  concept  of  a  hemisphere,  a  continent,  a 
country,  or  even  a  state.  In  any  of  these  cases  we 
can  only  hope  for  an  approximately  correct  concept 
to  be  formed.  So  that  the  objections  against  making 
the  earth  the  initial  whole  in  teaching  geography 
are  just  as  valid  against  any  other  whole  which  em- 
braces more  than  lies  within  the  children's  field  of 
vision.  My  own  experience  with  children  leads  me 
to  believe  that  the  earth  as  a  whole  is  more  easily 
comprehended  by  them  than  is  any  large  portion  of 
it  taken  as  an  entity. 

The  (    Still  others  think  the  proper  way  is  to 

Synthetic  wbegin  with  a  small  portion  of  the  earth, 
Method.  that  which   the  children  can  see  with 


Methods  of  Teaching.  37 

their  bodily  eyes;  that  they  ought  first  to  be  made 
familiar  with  this  in  order  to  sharpen  their  vision 
for  the  later  geographical  conceptions,  and  their  in- 
tellect for  the  more  complicated  relations;  and  that 
the  earth  as  a  whole  should  be  considered  only  in 
the  higher  grades  of  studyJ7  These  teachers  advo- 
cate the  synthetic  method,  which  they  claim  is  in 
accordance  with  correct  principles  of  pedagogy, 
in  that  a  small  and  easily  comprehended  space  is 
treated  at  the  outset;  that  the  most  concrete  things, 
easily  understood  by  the  children,  form  the  ground- 
work of  further  instruction;  and  that  the  gradual 
extension  of  these  small  districts  is  well  accommo- 
dated to  the  gradual  development  of  the  pupil's 
mind. 

The  True  The  fact  is  that  each  of  these  methods 
Method.  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages, 

and  the  teacher  who  uses  either  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  other  is  not  wise.  In  preparatory  geography, 
that  is,  in  the  work  which  may  and  should  be  done 
before  the  children  begin  using  the  text-book,  the 
synthetic  method  should  have  the  field  almost  en- 
tirely to  itself.  But  as  soon  as  they  have  acquired 
a  good  stock  of  geographical  concepts  from  the 
study  of  the  forms  in  the  home  neighborhood,  and 
are  ready  to  begin  the  study  of  regions  which  lie 
beyond  their  field  of  vision,  the  analytic  method  will 
come  into  use.  /Ttjfi  not  wise  to  follow  the  synthetic 
method  too  far.  TThere  is  danger  that  it  will  lead  the 
children  blindly  from  parts  to  a  whole,  keeping  them 
in  suspense  as  to  the  outcomes  And  this  is  to  be 
deprecated  notwithstanding  the  pedagogical  dogma, 
that  we  should  tro  from  the  known  to  the  unknown. 


The  Beginningsof  Geography 


CHAPTER  VI. 


DIRECTION,  DISTANCE,  FORM,  AND  COLOR. 

.    Before   entering-   upon   the    systematic 

Need  of  Know-  teaching   of   any   subject,    the   teacher 
ing  Children's ',        ,,    ,    .  .  c  .,  .      ,. 

Knowledge  0f  snould.  determine,  as  far  as  possible,  the 

Geography,  extent  of  the  children's  knowledge  con- 
cerning it.  This  he  must  do  if  he  ex. 
pects  the  best  results  from  his  labor.  What  they 
already  know  bearing  on  the  matter  in  hand  is  the 
working  capital,  the  use  of  which  the  teacher  must 
so  direct  that  it  will  bring  in  the  largest  possible 
gains  for  the  time  and  effort  expended.  He  should 
ever  bear  in  mind  that  all  he  can  do  is  to  direct,  to 
influence,  to  surround  his  pupils  with  the  proper  en- 
vironment. He  can,  by  his  manner  and  by  the  in- 
terest with  which  he  imbues  the  subject,  stimulate 
them  to  put  forth  effort,  and  that  is  about  all  he  can 
do.    All  advancement,  all  growth,  must 

„.,, ,  be  the  result  of  their  own  effort,  guided 

Children  b 

Know?  intelligently  by  the  teacher,   and  this 

intelligent  guidance  can   only  follow  a 
knowledge  of  the  mental  content  of  the  learners. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  call  what  the  chil- 
dren know  of  the  subject,  when  about  to  enter  upon 
its  study,  the  foundation  on  which  the  teacher  must 

aid   them   to    erect    their    educational 
No  Sudden  ,.,.  rni  ...        r  i     i   ,1 

~        .*.  edifice.    The  transition  from  what  they 

Transition.  J 

know  to  what  they  are  about  to  learn 

should  be  so  gradual  as  to  be  well-nigh  imperceptible 


42  Teaching  Geography. 

even  to  themselves.  This  must  be  so  if  the  children 
are  to  retain  in  school  the  naturalness,  the  feeling' 
of  ease  and  familiarity,  when  speaking-  of  the  subject, 
that  characterized  them  before  entering  school.  A 
sudden  transition  from  the  familiar  to  the  strange 
dazes  them,  and  often  makes  them  so  timid,  that  they 
will  say  nothing,  for  fear  of  not  saying  the  right 
thing.  This  timidity  leads  to  awkwardness  and  a 
rigidity  of  manner  which  frequently  bring  upon  them 
the  charge  of  stupidity — a  charge  of  which,  in  justice, 
they  should  be  acquitted  at  once.  But  whether  we 
regard  their  knowledge  as  their  working  capital  or 
the  foundation  on  which  they  are  to  build  (the 
thoughts  are  not  far  apart),  the  fact  to  be  emphasized 
is  that  the  teacher  should  have  as  full  a  knowledge 
as  possible  of  its  amount  and  kind. 

It  maybe  necessary  to  give  the  children  some  in- 
struction on  direction,  distance,  form,  and.  color;  if 
so,  the  following  plan  is  suggested.  But  if  they 
show  that  they  already  know  those  subjects,  the 
teacher  should  pass  them  by. 

Many  people  fix  direction  by  streets  or 
Direction. 

railroads,  and  so  are   "turned  around 

when  they  go  to  places  in  which  the  streets  or  rail- 
roads extend  in  other  directions  than  do  those  at  the 
home  town.  The  teacher  should  help  his  pupils  to 
fix  direction  by  the  sun,  and  urge  them  to  notice  its 
position  whenever  they  go  to  a  new  place  and  before 
deciding  what  is  north,  west,  etc. 

If  the  children  do  not  already  know  the  cardinal 
points,  they  should  be  taught  them.  The  best  time 
to  introduce  the  subject  is  a  few  minutes  before 
noon.     If  they  stand  at  this  time  with  their  backs 


Direction,  Distance,  Form,  and  Color.  43 

to  the  sun,  they  are  looking  north,  and 

n  ,  behind  them  is  south.    This  is  true  at  all 

Points. 

seasons  of  the  year,  while  it  is  not  true 
that  the  sun  rises  in  the  east  and  sets  in  the  ivest.  If 
they  stand  with  their  faces  to  the  sun,  they  are  look- 
ing south,  and  north  is  behind  them;  they  thus 
learn  that  north  and  south  are  opposite  each  other. 

When  looking  to  the  north,  if  the  children  stretch 
their  arms  straight  out  from  their  sides,  their  right 
hands  will  point  to  the  east,  and  their  left  to  the  ivest. 
But  if  they  stand  facing  the  south,  their  right  hands 
will  point  to  the  west,  and  their  left  to  the  east; 
thus  they  learn  that  east  and  west  are  opposite 
each  other.  The  teacher  should  lead  the  pupils 
to  see  that,  by  a  knowledge  of  direction,  they  are 
enabled  to  fix  the  location  of  objects  and  places 
with  reference  to  certain  fixed  points,  as  well  as 
with  reference  to  their  own  position. 

It  is  well  to  drill  frequently  and  carefully.   Drill 

work  is   valuable   not  only  in  testing  the   pupil's 

knowledge,  but  also  in  clearing  it  of  mistiness,  and 

in  fixing  it  firmly  in  his  mind.     The  following  drill 

is  suggested  at  this  point;     "Point  to  the  north;" 

"to  the  south;"  "to  the  west;"  "to.  the  east."     "You 

may   face    the   north."     "When    facing   the  north, 

what  point  on  your  right?"  "On  your  left?"  "What 

point  opposite  the  north?"     "Opposite  the  east?" 

"The  south?"     "Name  several  objects  in  the  room 

north  from  you;"  "several  south  from  you;"  "west;" 

"east.  *' 

When  the   teacher  is  satisfied  that  the 

Semi-Car-       c]ass  knows  the  cardinal  points,  let  him 

dinal  Points.    ,        .  ,,  7 .      ,       .    ,     .  , 

begin  on  the  semi-card  ma  I  points,  but  not 


44  Teaching  Geography. 

before.  He  should  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
half  way  between  north  and  east  is  northeast,  so 
called  because  of  its  position.  By  a  little  thought- 
fulness  and  skill  on  his  part  the  children  will  find 
out  for  themselves  that  northwest  is  midway  between 
north  and  west;  southeast,  midway  between  south  and 
east;  southiuest,  midway  between  south  and  west. 

Here  again  drill  work  is  in  order.  It  should  cover 
not  only  the  semi-cardinal  points,  but  the  cardinal 
points  as  well.  The  questions  by  the  teacher  should 
not  only  test  the  children's  knowledge;  they  should 
also  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  lead  them  to  see 
the  points  in  their  proper  relation.  He  may  make  a 
diagram  on  the  floor,  showing  both  the  cardinal  and 
semi-cardinal  points  in  their  proper  places.  After 
calling  the  attention  of  the  children  to  the  diagram, 
let  him  erase  it,  and  ask  each  of  them  to  reproduce 
it  on  his  slate.  Eight  of  the  children  may  stand  on 
the  floor,  arranging  themselves  so  as  to  occupy  the 
eight  points.  Let  the  teacher  name  any  two  of  these 
points,  asking  the  pupils  occupying  them  to  ex- 
change places. 

A  diagram  showing  the  points  should  be  placed 

on   the  north  wall  and  the  attention  of  the  pupils 

called  to  the  fact  that  the  north  is  towards  the  top. 

Other  devices   should   be   tried.     Every   successful 

teacher  must  be  an  inventor. 

~.  .  Next  introduce   the    idea    of  distance. 

Distance. 

To  learn  distance  it  is  necessary  that 
the  children  notice  carefully  certain  measures.  Each 
should  be  provided  with  a  measure  a  foot  long, 
as  the  foot  will  be  found  the  most  convenient  unit 
with  which  to  begin.     The  teacher  should  bear  in 


Direction,  Distance,  Form,  and  Color.  45 

mind  that  the  important  thing  to  be  done  here  is, 
not  to  teach  the  children  that  a  certain  number  of 
units  of  one  order  make  one  unit  of  a  higher  order, 
but  to  help  the  children  to  form  correct  mental  pic- 
tures of  the  distances  represented  by  the  measures 
used.  The  following"  plan  of  work  is  suggested;  but 
the  teacher  must  feel  free  to  modify  or  discard  it 
altogether,  as  there  can  be  no  successful  teaching 
without  freedom  in  the  choice  of  methods. 

"This  ruler  which  I  hold  in  my  hand  is  a  foot 
long.  You  may  hold  your  hands  a  foot  apart.  I  find 
by  measuring  that  John  has  his  hands 
too  far  apart,  and  the  rest  of  the  boys 
have  theirs  too  near  together.  Mary  has  her  hands 
about  right,  but  the  other  girls  have  theirs  too  far 
apart.  You  may  try  again.  I  find  now  that  two 
boys  and  three  girls  have  their  hands  the  right  dis- 
tance apart,  but  most  of  the  others  have  theirs  too 
far. 

"Point  to  some  object  in  the  room  a  foot  long. 
Name  as  many  such  objects  as  you  can,  and  measure 
them  to  see  if  you  are  right. 

"You  may  all  pass  to  the  blackboard  and  draw 
a  line  a  foot  long.  Each  of  you  measure  his  own 
line.  How  many  have  a  line  of  the  proper  length? 
Whose  is  too  short?  Whose  too  long?  Erase  those 
lines  and  draw  three  more  lines  each  a  foot  long. 
Measure  the  lines  with  your  rulers;  whose  are  of  the 
proper  length? 

"The  rulers  that  you  hold  in  your  hands  are 
marked  off  into  equal  spaces  by  means  of  lines  drawn 
across  them.  Each  space  is  an  inch.  How  many 
spaces  are  there?     Then   a   foot  equals  how  many 


46  Teaching  Geography. 

inches?  Your  pencils  are  how  many  inches  long? 
How  long-  are  your  slates? 

''Draw  a  line  on  the  blackboard  three  times  the 
length  of  your  rulers.  This  line  is  a  yard  long.  Look 
at  it  carefully.  You  may  erase  it.  Point  to  some 
object  in  the  room  that  is  a  yard  long.  Name  two 
objects  that  are  a  yard  apart.  Place  your  ruler  one 
yard  from  your  own  desk.  This  room  is  how  many 
yards  long?     How  many  yards  wide. 

"Pass  to  the  blackboard,  and  without  using  your 
rulers  draw  three  lines,  each  a  yard  long.  Measure 
them  to  see  how  near  right  they  are. 

"Cora,  you  may  stand  one  yard  from  me;  two 
yards;  three  yards;  four  yards;  five  yards;  move  half 
a  yard  further  off.  James  may  measure  the  distance 
and  see  if  Cora  guessed  right;  if  so,  she  is  a  rod  from 
me,  as  five  and  one  half  yards  make  a  rod.  How 
many  rods  in  the  length  of  the  room?  In  the 
width?" 

It  will  be  well  to  have  in  the  room  a  foot,  a  yard, 
and  a  rod  measure.  As  by  frequently  looking  at 
them,  the  children  will  be  aided  in  forming  proper 
concepts  of  the  different  lengths. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  teach  the  idea  of  a  mile  at 
this  stage  of  the  work,  as  the  children  will  have  no 
occasion  to  use  it  for  some  time  yet.  When  it  is 
taught,  it  should  be  by  calling  attention  to  two 
familiar  objects  that  are  a  mile  apart,  and  that  can 
be  seen  from  the  school  house. 

The  teacher  will  notice  that  throughout  this  illus- 
trative work  the  children  are  urged  first  to  guess  at 
the  length  of  objects,  or  their  distances  apart,  and 
then  to  measure  them.     Why  ask  them  to  guess  at 


Direction,  Distance,  Form,  and  Color.  47 

the  length  of  objects  and  distances  which  they  are 
expected  to  measure? 

Geometrical  It  is  possible  that  such  elements  and 
Forms.  figures  as  are  necessary  in  map  repre- 

sentation may  have  been  learned  in  the  drawing 
class,  and  the  children  may  now  be  able  to  recognize, 
to  name,  and  to  represent  them  readily.  Vertical, 
horizontal,  slanting,  perpendicular,  and  curved  lines; 
the  right  angle,  acute  and  obtuse  angles;  the  vari- 
eties of  triangles  and  quadrilaterals,  and  the  circle, 
should  be  familiar  to  them  before  they  begin  to  make 
maps.  The  practice  in  making  these  figures  will 
give  the  learners  confidence  in  their  own  ability,  and 
strengthen  their  power  to  detect  and  learn  the  dif- 
ferent forms. 

In  teaching  this  subject,  it  will  be  well  for  the 
teacher  to  stand  with  crayon  in  hand  as  he  talks  to 
his  class  and  place  the  elements  and  figures  named 
on  the  blackboard.  The  following  method  is  sug- 
gested: 

''This  straight  up  and  down  line  is  a  vertical 
line.  Draw  three  vertical  lines  on  your  slates.  Draw 
three  vertical  lines,  each  six  inches  long.  You  may 
pass  to  the  board  and  draw  five  vertical  lines,  each 
a  foot  long.  Point  to  several  vertical  lines  in  the 
room. 

"This  is  a  horizontal  line.  How  does  it  differ 
from  a  vertical  line?  Draw  on  your  slates  two  hori- 
zontal lines  the  length  of  this  one.  How  long  is  this 
line?  Draw  on  your  slates  four  horizontal  lines, each 
four  inches  long.  Draw  six  horizontal  lines  on  the 
board,  each  a  foot  long.'' 


48  Teaching  Geography. 

In  like  manner  right-slanting-,  left-slanting1,  par- 
allel, straight,  and  curved  lines  may  be  taught. 
When  teaching  slanting  lines,  the  teacher  should 
introduce  the  word  "oblique,"  and  show  that  it 
means  the  same  as  "slanting." 

An  angle  is  the  next  simplest  form  after  the  line. 
It  is  formed  by  the  coming  together  of  two  straight 
lines,  and  is  their  difference  of  direction.  Let  the 
teacher  show  his  pupils  what  this  means, pointing  out 
to  them  that  the  size  of  an  angle  does  not  depend  on 
the  length  of  its  sides,  but  on  the  difference  of  direc- 
tion. The  right  angle  being  the  standard  of  meas- 
urement, should  be  introduced  first,  then  the  acute 
and  obtuse;  the  meaning  of  those  terms  should  be 
explained.  This  is  also  a  good  time  to  make  clear 
to  the  children  the  difference  between  vertical  and 
perpendicular  lines.  It  will  be  difficult  to  convince 
them  that  a  horizontal  line  may  be  a  perpendicular 
line,  and  that  a  vertical  line  is  not  necessarily  a 
perpendicular  line,  yet  it  must  be  done. 

The  transition  from  the  angle  to  the  triangle  is  an 
easy  one,  there  being  but  the  addition  of  one  line.  It 
should  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  this  slight 
addition  gives  two  additional  angles;  and  that  the 
completed  figure  owes  its  name  to  the  fact  of  its 
having  three  angles. 

An  addition  of  two  lines  to  the  triangle  gives  a 
figure  having  four  sides,  and  every  four-sided  figure 
is  a  quadrilateral,  as  this  long  word  means  that  which 
has  four  sides.  If  the  angles  are  all  right  angles 
and  the  opposite  sides  are  equal,  the  figure  is  a 
rectangle;  and  if  the  angles  are  right  angles  and  all 
sides  equal,  it  is  a  square. 


Direction,  Distance,  Form,  and  Color.  49 

Let  the  names  of  the  figures  be  taught  in  every 
instance,  instead  of  having  resort  to  some  round- 
about expression,  which  is  fully  as  difficult  and  far 
less  satisfactory. 

Acircle  should  next  be  described  on  the  board,  and 
attention  called  to  the  bounding  line  or  circumference, 
the  radius,  and  diameter.  It  must  be  impressed  upon 
the  pupils  that  the  space  enclosed  by  the  circumfer- 
ence is  the  circle.  This  is  important.  Definitions 
learned  now  should  be  good  for  all  time  and  in  all 
studies  in  which  the  terms  defined  occur;  and  there 
is  no  good  reason  why  they  should  not  be. 
Desk  Work  ^ne  teacher  should  not  only  drill  the 
children  in  making  those  forms  on  their 
slates  and  on  the  blackboard  during  the  recitation 
period;  he  should  also  be  prepared  to  keep  them 
occupied  while  at  their  seats.  A  box  of  colored 
sticks  that  may  be  bought  for  a  few  cents,  will  be 
found  very  serviceable  in  this  work.  These  the 
children  can  arrange  in  the  forms  of  lines  studied, 
and  with  them  they  can  make  the  different  kinds  of 
angles,  triangles,  and  quadrilaterals.  If  the  sticks 
cannot  be  procured,  the  children  may  be  kept  busy 
folding  papers  into  the  various  forms. 
-  .  As  stated  elsewhere,  the  making  of  cor- 

rect  mental  pictures  lies  at  the  basis  of 
all  true  study  of  geography.  Color  is  an  essential 
of  pictures,  hence  it  is  taught  as  an  aid  to  seeing 
and  conceiving  forms  as  they  appear  in  nature.  It 
is  possible  that  this  subject  has  already  been  taught 
in  a  special  class  in  form  and  color.  If  so,  it  will 
do  no  harm  to  review  it  here;  and  if  it  has  not  been 
taught,  it  is  time  it  were. 


50  Teaching  Geography. 

It  is  best  to  use  but  a  few  colors  at  first,  and 
those  as  near  the  standard  as  possible.  Colored  tis- 
sue paper  is  very  convenient  for  use  in  teaching"  this 
topic.  "Holding  blue  paper  towards  the  light,  and 
placing  with  it  red,  violet  is  produced.  Likewise, 
red  and  yellow  give  orange;  blue  and  yellow,  green. 
Placing  the  green  and  violet  together  results  in  olive ; 
orange  and  violet  produce  russet." 

Let  the  teacher  place  upon  the  table  a  collection 
of  bright  colored  objects,  such  as  ribbons,  fruits, 
flowers,  balls  of  yarn,  etc.,  and  have  the  children 
name  the  color  of  each  object,  and  place  objects  of 
like  color  in  a  group  by  themselves.  They  should 
be  required  to  select  some  object  on  the  table,  and 
name  all  objects  of  like  color  in  the  room;  also  to 
observe  the  different  colors  in  clothing,  leaves, 
flowers,  fruits,  animals,  the  rainbow,  etc. 

A  box  of  ordinary  water  colors  will  be  of  service 
to  the  teacher  in  doing  this  work;  but  if  each  pupil 
is  provided  with  a  box  with  which  to  paint  familiar 
objects  in  brilliant  colors,  success  is  certain. 


Climate,  Evaporation,  and  Condensation.  51 


CHAPTER  VII. 


CLIMATE,  EVAPORATION,  AND  CONDENSATION. 

Children,  by  the  time  they  are  six  years  of  age, 

have  acquired  a  large  number  of  geographical  facts, 

and  can  reason  about  those  facts  more 

Forms  of         intelligently  than  many  suppose.   Their 
Land  and  ..      ,     ,  ,    -.  £  ,        . 

w  .  earliest    knowledge    of    geography    is 

along  the  line  of  physical  geography, 
close  to  which  follows  sociology,  while  political  ge- 
ography brings  up  the  rear.  Until  quite  recently  the 
text-book  makers  tried  to  reverse  this  order,  and 
some  teachers  unwisely  followed  their  lead.  The  re- 
sults were  usually  unsatisfactory;  they  could  not  well 
be  otherwise.  There  is  no  more  crying  evil  in  connec- 
tion with  the  teaching  of  geography  than  this,  that 
the  children  are  torn  away  from  Nature  with  whom 
they  have  grown  into  close  companionship,  and  com- 
pelled to  study  the  works  of  man,  and,  at  first, 
usually  those  of  least  interest.  Not  but  what  the 
works  of  man  are  well  worth  studying,  but  every- 
thing in  its  place.  First  let  them  study  Nature  near 
whose  heart  they  dwell,  and  to  whose  every  mood 
their  souls  respond,  and  the  habit  of  study  formed 
here  in  dealing  with  that  in  which  they  take  delight 
will  enable  them  later  to  turn  to  the  works  of 
man  with  pleasure  instead  of  indifference  or  even 
loathing. 

They  know  what  is  meant  by  heat  and  cold,  and 
that  summer  is  hotter  than  winter,  although  they 


52  Teaching  Geography. 

may  not  know  why  it  is  so.  Rain,  hail,  and  snow 
are  familiar  to  them,  and  they  understand  that  all 
three  are  connected  in  some  manner  with  the  clouds, 
but  how  connected  they  do  not  understand  beyond 
that  they  drop  from  them  to  the  earth.  If  they  live 
in  the  country  or  in  country  towns,  they  have  seen 
dew  and  hoar  frost,  and  know  that  cold  has  caused 
the  frost,  but  probably  will  not  know  it  has  caused 
the  dew  also.  They  have  romped  so  much  with  the 
wind,  chasms'  it  when  it  carried  off  their  hats,  pout- 
ing- when  it  blew  their  hair  about  their  faces,  and 
smiling  when  it  painted  roses  on  their  cheeks,  that 
they  will  need  no  formal  introduction  to  it  at  this 
time;  but  they  possibly  will  to  the  air,  which  has 
behaved  itself  so  quietly  that  it  has  not  attracted 
their  attention. 

Knowing  well  the  amount  and  character 
Difference  of  the  children's  knowledge  on  these 
in  Tempera-     pointSj  it  ought  not  to  be  difficult  for 

the  teacher  to  lead  them  to  see  that  the 
greater  heat  of  summer  is  due  to  the  greater  altitude 
of  the  sun  and  to  the  fact  that  it  then  spends  the 
larger  part  of  each  day,  of  twenty-four  hours,  where 
its  heat  reaches  us  directly.  Being  more  nearly  over- 
head in  summer  than  it  is  in  winter,  the  rays  of  heat 
from  it  come  more  nearly  straight  down,  or  vertical, 
and  consequently  more  of  them  will  fall  on  any  given 
space,  This  the  teacher  can  easily  illustrate.  The 
relation  of  the  wind  which  they  know  to  the  air  which 
they  do  not  know,  and  how  a  difference  in  tempera- 
ture between  two  places  causes  the  wind,  can  be 
taught  successfully  to  these  young  learners,  if  the 
teacher  has  mastered  the  topics  himself,  and  has 


Climate,  Evaporation,  and  Condensation.  53 

learned  the  art  of  leading-  children  into  the  light. 

A  few  simple  illustrations  with  which 
Evapora-  the  children  are  familiar,  such  as  the 
tion.  "steam"  from  the  boiling  teakettle,  the 

steam  in  the  laundry  on  wash  days,  and 
the  rapid  drying  up  of  water  spilt  on  a  hot  stove, 
will  enable  them  to  grasp  the  thought  of  evapora- 
tion; while  the  drops  which  form  on  the  under  side 
of  the  lid  placed  over  a  kettle  of  boiling  water,  on 
the  windows  in  the  laundry,  and  sometimes  even  on 
the  walls,  will  lead  to  an  appreciation  of  the  subject 
of  condensation.  The  pupils  will  see  that  evapora- 
tion is  caused  by  heat,  condensation  by  cold;  that 
these  processes  which,'  on  a  small  scale,  are  going 
on  in  and  about  their  homes  are  taking  place  on  a 
larger  scale  outdoors;  and  that  the  sun  is  the  source 
of  heat. 

It  may  be  necessary  at  this  point  to  call 
The  the  attention  of  the  children  again  to 

the  air,  or  atmosphere.  This  is  not  an 
easy  subject  to  teach  to  beginners,  yet,  with  skill  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher,  they  can  be  led  to  compre- 
hend it  fairly  well.  They  can  be  taught  its  nature 
in  a  general  way,  its  height,  its  weight,  how  it  is 
affected  by  heat  and  cold,  and  how  necessary  it  is 
to  all  forms  of  life.  It  is  heavier  than  vapor  of 
water,  and  when  the  heat  changes  some  of  the  water 
of  the  oceans,  seas,  lakes,  rivers,  etc.,  into  vapor, 
the  vapor  being  lighter  than  the  air  is  forced  up  by 
it,  and  at  the  same  time  carried  along  by  the  hori- 
zontal movement  of  the  air,  that  is  by  the  wind, 
until  it  reaches  a  place  where  the  cold  is  sufficiently 


54  Teaching  Geography. 

great  to  condense  the  vapor  into  drops  of  water  so 
small  and  light  that  they  float  around  in  the  air. 

The  clouds  consist  of  a  very  large  num- 
'  ber  of  these  little  drops.  If  the  clouds 
are  driven  by  the  wind  into  a  still  colder  region,  the 
tiny  drops  composing  them  are  crowded  into  larger 
drops  which  fall  in  the  form  of  rain.  Sometimes  the 
raindrops  are  frozen  before  they  reach  the  earth,  and 
form  hailstones;  and,  if  the  cold  is  great  enough,  the 
little  particles  of  water  forming  the  clouds  will  be 
frozen  and  fall  as  snow. 

The  effect  of  the  rain  upon  the  earth  can 
Effect  of  j^  taught.     The  heatfrom  the  sun  and 

th    E    th        *ke  moisture  cause  the  crops  to  grow, 

the  flowers  to  bloom,  and  the  trees  to 
send  their  roots  down  deep  into  the  ground,  rear 
their  heads  high  into  the  air,  and  send  out  their 
strong  arms  to  gather  in  and  protect  the  birds  of  the 
air  and  the  beasts  of  the  field.  Some  of  the  water 
sinks  into  the  ground  and  comes  out  again  in  the 
form  of  springs;  some  of  it  is  taken  up  by  the  plants, 
some  is  evaporated,  and  most  of  the  remainder  is 
gathered  into  small  streams,  those  into  larger  ones, 
which  in  turn  unite  to  form  large  rivers  that  flow 
into  the  ocean,  to  be  again  changed  to  vapor  and 
carried  to  the  land. 

The  pitcher  of  cold  water  that  stands  on 
Illustra-  ^e  dining-room  table  at  the  time  of  the 

mid-day  meal,  in  summer,  will  furnish 
an  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which  the  dew  is 
formed.  Whence  come  the  drops  of  water  that  form 
on  the  outside  of  the  pitcher?  Why  do  they  form  but 
a  little  higher  than  the  water  reaches  on  the  inside? 


Climate,  Evaporation,  and  Condensation.  55 

Why  is  it  that  some  days  no  drops  are  formed,  no 
matter  how  cold  the  water  may  be?  And  why  do 
they  never  form  on  a  pitcher  of  hot  water?  In  an- 
swering these  questions,  the  children  will  use  and 
clarify  what  they  have  already  learned  concerning 
evaporation  and  condensation,  and  the  effect  of  heat 
and  cold  upon  the  capacity  of  the  air  for  holding" 
vapor  of  water. 

The  cold  water  in  the  pitcher  makes  its  outer 
surface  cooler  than  the  air  in  the  room,  and  the  air 
being  still,  the  same  particles  remain  in  contact  with 
the  surface  long  enough  for  the  cold  to  condense  the 
vapor"  which  they  hold  into  these  drops.  ■  The  drojos 
are  not  seen  much  above  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
the  pitcher  because  the  upper  part  is  not  sufficiently 
cold  to  condense  the  vapor.  Again,  some  days  there 
is  comparatively  little  vapor  in  the  air,  and  if  any 
of  it  is  condensed  by  contact  with  the  pitcher,  the 
drops  are  so  small  as  to  pass  unnoticed;  or  the  air 
may  be  moving  so  briskly  that  the  same  particles 
do  not  remain  in  contact  with  the  cold  surface  long 
enough  to  lose  the  moisture  they  may  contain.  Why 
drops  do  not  form  on  the  outside  of  a  pitcher  of  hot 
water  will  at  this  juncture  be  evident  to  the  pupils. 
The  phenomena  just  noticed  are  familiar  to  chil- 
dren both  in  city  and  country,  and  theirexplanation 
will  give  an  insight  into  the  manner  in  which  dew  is 
formed;  why  there  is  more  of  it  formed  on  a  still  night 
than  on  a  windy  one,  and  more  on  a  clear  night  than 
on  one  when  the  sky  is  overcast  with  clouds.  If  they 
understand  about  the  formation  of  dew,  they  will 
readily  see  how  hoar  frost  is  formed.  It  will  be  nec- 
essary to  touch  somewhat  upon  the  subject  of  radi- 


56  Teaching  Geographic 

ation  of  heat  by  the  earth,  but  the  teacher  need  not 
be  afraid  to  do  so;  for  if  he  does  it  intelligently,  the 
children  will  respond  heartily  to^his  efforts. 

Attention  should  next  be  called  to  the 
land  in  the  home  neighborhood,  and  first 
to  the  surface  forms.  The  plain,  the  knoll,  the  hill,  if 
any,  the  valley,  and  all  other  forms  that  are  accessi- 
ble, should  be  inspected  by  the  children.  Descriptions 
by  the  teacher,  however  accurate  and  vivid,  are  not 
so  valuable  as  actual  observation.  It  is  only  by  com- 
ing- into  the  presence  of  these  forms  and  seeing  them 
for  themselves  that  the  pupils  acquire  apperceiving 
power  sufficient  to  apprehend  the  descriptions  and 
perceive  their  meaning.  It  is  in  the  same  manner 
that  they  obtain  apperceiving  material  with  which 
to  master  the  geography  of  all  regions  lying  out  of 
their  field  of  vision. 

Especial  care  should  be  given  to  the 
slopes,  as  the  entire  surface  of  the  land 
consists  of  such  with  their  lines  of  union  and  lines  of 
separation,  the  lines  of  union  being  found  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  valleys  where  the  waters  from  the  slopes 
facing  each  other  unite,  and  the  lines  of  separation  in 
the  divides,  or  water  sheds,  that  separate  the  slopes. 
The  importance  of  a  careful  study  of  these  forms  can- 
not well  be  overestimated,  as  a  large  share  of  the 
benefit  acquired  from  geographical  study  comes  from 
being  able  to  form  and  retain  a  clear,  accurate  men- 
tal picture  of  the  physical  features  of  the  earth; 
which  can  be  done  most  easily,  perhaps,  by  uniting 
these  small  slopes  into  larger  ones,  and  these  again 
into  still  larger,  until  there  is  the  ability  to  arrange 
the  entire  surface  of  the  land  into  two  grand  slopes, 


Climate,  Evaporation,  and  Condensation.  57 

one  long  and  gradual,  facing  the  Atlantic  and  Arctic 
oceans,  the  other  short  and  abrupt,  facing  the  Pa- 
cific and  Indian  Oceans. 

The  value  of  this  mental  picture  will  be  evident, 
if  it  is  remembered  that  man,  next  to  God,  is  the  cen- 
tral being  of  the  universe;  that  whatever  affects 
him  most,  is  worthy  of  the  most  careful  study;  and 
that  while  he  may  largely  determine  his  conditions, 
yet  as  a  matter  of  fact  they  are  determined  for  him, 
in  some  measure,  by  the  geographical  conditions 
of  his  locality.  The  most  immediate  benefit  to  the 
children,  however,  comes  from  seeing  the  relation  of 
the  slopes  to  the  stream  at  their  line  of  union.  It  is 
poor  teaching  that  will  not  lead  them  to  see  that 
the  size  of  the  stream  depends  largely  on  the  length 
and  width  of  the  slopes,  that  its  course  depends  on 
the  direction  of  the  tilting  of  these  slopes,  and  its 
velocity  on  the  degree  of  tilting  towards  its  mouth. 
If  they  see  these  relations  between  the  home  stream 
and  the  slopes  on  either  side,  they  will  be  the  better 
prepared  to  form  approximately  correct  notions  of 
unseen  streams  and  slopes  concerning  which  they 
will  hereafter  study. 

By  a  proper  study  of  the  home  stream, 
Home  the  pupils  learn  to  put  meaninginto  such 

terms  as  the  source  of  a  river,  the  mouth, 
right  bank,  left  bank,  wearing  bank,  building  bank, 
course,  current,  velocity,  bed,  sand-bar,  and,  possi- 
bly, rapids  and  falls.  This  stream,  small  though  it 
may  be.  will  afford  an  opportunity  tor  obtaining  cor- 
rect notions  of  an  island,  peninsula,  isthmus,  cape, 
promontory,  strait,  bay,  or  gulf.  The  children's  first 
knowledge  of  these  forms  should  be  gained  from  per- 


58  Teaching  Geography. 

sonal  observation;  that  is,  it  should  be  immediate 
know!  edge  as  far  as  possible ;  and  no  person  or  agency 
should  come  between  the  learners  and  the  real  objects 
which  they  are  studying-. 

Unfortunately  the  objects  themselves  are  often 
ignored,  and  the  children  are  introduced  to  the  study 
of  geography  through  maps,  pictures,  and  words,  and 
that,  too,  in  many  instances  when  the  objects  which 
these  symbols  are  intended  to  represent  can  be  seen 
from  the  school  house  door.  The  symbols  are  well 
enough  in  their  proper  place,  but  meaningless  words, 
especially  if  unnecessary,  are  always  out  of  place; 
and  it  is  questionable  if  the  study  of  maps  should 
ever  find  a  place  in  the  primary  school;  the  making  of 
maps  certainly  should,  but  they  should  be  made  from 
the  objects  instead  of  being  copied. 

Pictures  are  very  helpful,  when  the  objects  pic- 
tured cannot  be  seen;  but  where  they  can  be,  they 
surpass  even  the  best  of  pictures,  and  should  be  stu- 
died first.  Thirty  minutes  spent  by  the  shore  of  Lake 

Michigan  would  give  the  children  more 
Value  of  , .  . 

...  .  correct  notions  concerning  lakes,  seas, 

Pictures.  &  ' 

and  oceans,  their  waves,  the  surf,  cliff, 

beach,  etc.,  than  would  a  week's  study  of  the  best 
painting  of  any  one  of  them.  The  educative  value 
of  the  picture  depends  on  their  ability  to  interpret 
it  correctly;  that  of  the  object  is  due  to  its  adapta- 
bility to  their  need. 

We  sometimes  fail  to  recognize  how  admirably 
the  child  and  the  universe  are  fitted  to  each  other. 
The  child  is  so  small  and  the  universe  so  large  that 
it  is  difficult  for  us  to  believe  and  feel  that  the  high- 
est and  noblest  purpose  of  everything  in  the  universe 


i 


Climate,  Evaporation,  and  Condensation.  59 

is  the  education  of  the  child.  God  in  his  goodness 
has  given  us  abundance  of  suitable  material  for  the 
accomplishment  of  this  purpose.  But  in  our  pride  or 
ignorance  we  turn  away  from  it  all,  and  substitute 
therefor  the  work  of  our  own  hands,  forgetting  that 
He  who  created  and  fashioned  the  universe  also  cre- 
ated the  child,  and  that  possibly  He  knew  as  much 
as  we  do  about  what  was  suited  for  its  intellectual 
and  spiritual  growth. 

Not  only  can  the  forms  of  land  and  water 

...  .  be  studied  near  home,  but  here  also  the 

Water.  ' 

children  can  be  led  to  understand,  in  a 
measure,  the  results  of  the  action  and  reaction  of  the 
two  elements  upon  each  other.  They  have  noticed 
that  when  it  rains,  the  water  flows  in  rivulets  in  the 
streets,  or  in  the  country  roads,  and  is  muddy.  In 
the  streets  of  the  city  the  rain  washes  the  dirt  into 
the  gutters  near  the  curbing,  where  it  is  carried 
along  by  the  water  in  two  muddy  streams.  As  the 
shower  becomes  lighter,  these  streams  become 
smaller  and  clearer,  and  shortly  after  the  rain 
ceases  they  disappear.  Before  doing  so,  however, 
they  carried  much  of  the  dirt  for  quite  a  distance, 
and  left  it  in  patches  along  the  sides  and  in  the  bot- 
toms of  the  gutters.  This  power  of  the  water  to  dig 
up  the  dirt  and  carry  it  from  one  place  to  another 
can  be  seen  on  a  country  road  much  better  than  in 
the  streets  of  the  city.  After  a  heavy  rain  it  will  be 
found  that  the  ridges  are  cut  down,  the  ruts  filled, 
and  the  road  smooth.  The  children  will  know  that 
these  changes  are  due  to  the  action  of  water — they 
knew  it  before,  but  did  not  consider  the  knowledge 
of  any  value,  as  the  teacher  said  nothing  about  it. 


60  Teaching  Geography. 

If  the  pupils  live  in  the  country,  they  will  see  how 
much  more  rapidly  the  rain  cuts  furrows  and  gullies 
in  a  newly  plowed  field  than  in  a  pasture,  or  even  in 
a  field  that  has  been  plowed  some  time;  and  they 
know  why  this  is  so.  Here,  as  well  as  elsewhere  in 
beginning  geography,  or  any  other  of  the  natural 
sciences,  the  teacher  should  constantly  appeal  to 
the  experience  of  the  children;  a  large  part  of  his 
work  must  consist  in  organizing  their  knowledge 
and  making  it  available  in  the  acquisition  of  further 
knowledge. 

The  pupils  have  now  learned  two  things  in  regard 
to  the  action  of  the  water  upon  the  land;  first,  it  loos- 
ens the  soil,  and  second,  it  carries  it  from  one  place 
to  another.  What  they  have  seen  the  water  doing 
in  the  street,  on  the  road,  or  in  the  plowed  field,  they 
can  see  it  doing  in  the  pasture.  Here  the  roots  of 
the  grass  partially  protect  the  soil  from  the  loosen, 
ing  and  carrying  power  of  the  water,  so  that  furrows 
and  ditches  will  not  be  made  as  rapidly  as  in  the 
plowed  field.  But  in  the  course  of  time  many  such 
have  been  made  even  in  pastures  and  meadows.  The 
creek,  which  they  cross  perhaps  several  times  a  day 
in  coming  to  and  going  from  school,  was  made  in 
this  manner. 

On  a  rainy  day  a  number  of  little  streams  maybe 
seen  flowing  into  it  on  either  side.  The  water  in 
these  is  muddy,  showing  that  they  are  carrying  dirt 
or  soil  into  the  creek;  and  the  water  in  the  creek  is 
still  more  muddy.  Both  creek  and  rivulets  have 
washed  out  the  land  along  their  banks,  and  the 
creek,  being  full  of  water,  flows  more  swiftly  than 
usual  and  carries  with  it  the  dirt.  As  soon  as  the 
rain   ceases   the  water  passes   out   of   the   smaller 


Climate,  Evaporation,  and  Condensation.  61 

streams  leaving"  their  channels  empty;  much  of  the 
water  in  the  creek  also  passes  off.  "What  is  left  does 
not  more  than  half  fill  the  creek,  and  it  flows  more 
slowly  than  it  did  when  the  creek  was  full.  As  a 
consequence  of  the  small  amount  of  water  and  the 
slow  movement,  its  carrying  or  transporting  power 
is  diminished,  the  soil  settles  to  the  bottom  or  along 
the  sides  and  the  water  becomes  clear. 

The  processes  of  loosening  and  transporting  the 
materials  of  the  land  from  one  locality  to  another, 
which  the  children  see  taking  place  near  their 
homes,  is  taking  place  on  a  larger  scale  all  over 
the  land.  The  water  is  constantly  wearing  away 
the  ridges  and  filling  up  the  hollows.  If  the  land  is 
soft,  the  wearing  is  rapid;  if  it  is  hard  the  wearing 
is  slow.  But  even  the  hard  rocks  are  changed  little 
by  little  into  gravel,  sand,  and  mud.  In  making 
these  changes  the  water  is  aided  materially,  in  some 
parts  of  the  world,  by  the  frost.  When  it  rains  the 
crevices  in  the  rocks  are  filled  with  water.  If  the 
weather  becomes  very  cold  before  the  water  is  evap- 
orated it  freezes,  and  in  doing  so  chips  off  a  piece 
of  the  rock,  as  any  quantity  of  water  requires  more 
space  in  the  form  of  ice  than  it  does  as  water;  this 
is  why  the  pitcher  in  the  cold  room  is  broken  if  the 
water  in  it  is  permitted  to  freeze.  The  pieces  of 
rock  chipped  off  by  the  frost  are  ground  against 
each  other  as  well  as  against  the  rocks  from  which 
they  are  chipped,  and  then  carried  down  the  stream. 
The  wind,  too,  in  addition  to  "carrying 

_      .  the  waters  from  the  sea  to  the  land  as 

Frost. 

fast  as  the  rivers  carry  them  from  the 
land  to  the  sea,"  helps  in  wearing  away  the  rocks 
and  soil.     If  there  is  a  hole  in  the  rock  and  it  con- 


62  Teaching  Geography. 

tains  a  few  grains  of  sand,  the  wind  will  whirl  the 
sand  round  and  round.  The  little  grains  have  sharp 
edges,  and  are  sure  to  make  the  hole  larger  and 
deeper,  and  when  the  rain  fills  it  with  water  and 
Jack  Frost  freezes  the  water,  larger  pieces  of  the  rock 
are  broken  off.  The  wind  wears  away  the  loose  soil 
much  faster  than  it  does  the  hard  rock.  Finding  a 
small  hole  in  the  soil,  with  a  little  dust  in  it,  it  uses 
the  dust  in  making  the  hole  larger,  and  then  fre- 
quently blows  it  away  to  some  other  place,  as  per- 
haps it  did  the  sand  which  it  ground  from  the  rocks. 
These  three  destructive,  yet  beneficent  agents — 
the  frost,  the  wind,  and  the  rain— are  constantly  at 
work,  under  the  supervision  of  the  sun,  changing 
the  forms  of  the  land.  Every  rill,  creek,  and  river 
is  busy  carrying  materials  from  the  highlands,  where 
the  cold  may  be  so  great  that  vegetation  will  not 
thrive,  to  the  lowlands  where  it  will.  They  have 
chiseled  and  carved  great  masses  of  highlands 
into  hills,  mountains,  valleys,  gorges,  and  canyons; 
formed  the  loosened  dirt  into  fertile  plains,  or  with 
it  converted  the  commodious  harbor  into  a  fever- 
breeding  marsh.  Therefore  it  is  entirely  proper  to 
say  that  the  rivers  formed  the  hills,  valleys,  and 
plains.  The  manner  in  which  they  did  this,  and  are 
still  doing  it,  can  be  illustrated  fairly  well  by  means 
of  the  molding  board,  a  little  sand,  and  a  sprinkling 
pot.  It  is  far  better,  however,  to  call  attention  to 
these  processes  as  they  are  taking  place  in  the 
home  vicinity.  Observant  teachers  will  find  in  their 
natural  environment  nearly  all  the  illustrations 
they  need,  and  will  rarely  resort  to  art:  when  they 
do  it  is  usually  to  supplement — not  to  supplant 
nature. 


Soil,  Vegetation,  and  Animals.  63 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

SOIL,  VEGETATION,  AND   ANIMALS. 

When  studying  the  home  stream  we  noticed  that 

during, and  immediately  after  a  heavy  rain,  the  water 

was  muddy.  We  also  noticed  that  shortly 

„  .       after  the  rain  ceased  the  water  in  the 

Is  Formed. 

stream  became  lower  and  clearer,  and 
that  strips  of  sand  and  mud,  with  perhaps  quite  a 
mixture  of  leaves  and  other  woody  matter,  were  de- 
posited on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  stream.  What 
we  there  saw  on  a  small  scale  may  be  seen  on  a  large 
scale  by  large  rivers,  with  this  addition,  that  the 
deposits  will  contain  many  pebbles,  especially  if  the 
rivers  rise  in  a  hilly  region.  Soil  formed  in  this  man- 
ner is  very  fertile,  and  is  called  alluvium,  because 
formed  by  the  action  of  flowing  waters. 

If  we  examine  the  wood  lot  we  shall  find  on  the 
surface  a  quantity  of  leaves  in  a  state  of  partial  de- 
cay; under  these  a  layer  of  vegetable 
The  Wood  -7,     ,  •*       vi        i        *  i  v 

,    .  mold,  snowing  quite  a  liberal  sprinkling 

of  woody  fiber;  while  still  lower  we  find 
the  soil  growing  harder  and  changing  from  black  to 
a  brown  or  reddish  color,  with  only  slight  traces  of 
vegetable  matter,  the  bulk  of  it  being  fine  sand  and 
rotten  rock.  Under  this  will  be  found  the  bedrock, 
with  its  surface  rough  and  uneven  and  showing 
strong  signs  of  decay.  This  soil  is  different  from 
the  alluvia]  in    many  respects,  more  especially  in 


64  Teaching  Geography. 

these  two,  that  its  richness  depends  partly  on  the 
nature  of  the  rock  below  it,  and  that  it  was  formed 
where  now  found?     But  how  formed? 

Some  of  the  children  may  think  that  it  was 
always  as  it  now  is;  this  is  not  correct.  They  should 
know  by  this  time  that  the  face  of  the  earth  is  con- 
stantly undergoing  change — change  in  both  its  ver- 
tical and  horizontal  configurations.  Alternations  of 
heat  and  cold,  by  expanding  and  contracting  the 
surface  of  the  rocks,  are  tearing  apart  the  crystals. 
The  air,  frost,  and  rain  are  unceasingly  rotting 
and  loosening  the  rocks  and  transporting  them  from 
their  mountain  fastnesses,  as  if  with  the  design  of 
dumping  them  into  the  sea;  while  the  sea,  angry  at 
the  encroachment  upon  its  domain,  hurls  itself 
in  fury  against  the  margins  of  the  land,  undermines 
the  tall  cliffs,  grinds  the  rocks  into  sand,  which  it 
mixes  with  the  off-scouring  of  the  earth,  and  buries 
the  unseemly  mass  fathoms  deep,  to  await  a  future 
emergence  from  beneath  the  waters. 

No!  nothing  is  as  it  was;  all  things  are  becoming, 

and  it  is  only  by  a  long  process  that  the  earth  has 

become  what  it  is.     It  is  believed  that 

„.  at  some  time  in  the  past  all  the  land 

Change.  l 

that  was  above  the  water  was  hard  rock. 
A  part  of  this  had  to  be  broken  up,  pulverized,  and 
changed  into  soil  in  order  that  plants  could  grow 
and  support  animal  life,  so  there  might  be  both 
plants  and  animals  to  contribute  to  the  well-being 
and  happiness  of  man.  The  manner  in  which  the 
alluvial  soil  was  formed  has  been  described;  it  re- 
mains to  tell  how  this  native  soil,  so  called  because 
formed  where  it  is  found,  was  made. 


Soil,  Vegetation,  and  Animals.  65 

As  soon  as  the  surface  of  the  rock  was 
Introduction       ,.    ,  .,  ,  ,   ,       .,  , 

of  Vegetation  sll^htly  roughened  by  the  agencies  al- 
ready named,  tiny  plants  appeared  in 
every  hollow  in  which  they  found  a  pinch  of  rock 
dust.  These  small  plants  were  lichens  and  mosses, 
such  as  can  be  found  growing  on  rocks  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  They  prospered,  spread  over  large  areas, 
and  assisted  the  rain  in  rotting  the  rocks. 

The  manner  in  which  they  assisted  was  this:  The 
lower  parts  of  the  plants  decayed  last  year,  and  the 
upper  parts  made  a  more  luxuriant  growth  than  they 
did  the  year  before.  The  decaying  plants  contained 
certain  acids  which  had  a  greater  destroying  power 
than  did  pure  water.  The  rain,  in  passing  down  to 
the  rock,  absorbed  some  of  these  acids,  and  so  was 
able  to  rot  the  rock  much  faster  than  it  couid  with- 
out them.  The  decaying  vegetation  not  only  in- 
creased the  destroying  power  of  the  water,  but  by 
being  washed  into  the  larger  hollows  it  formed  a 
soil  in  which  grew  plants  having  wTell-marked  roots. 
These  roots  reached  down  into  the  loosened  portions 
of  the  rock,  and  deepened  the  soil  by  mingling  their 
lifeless  bodies  with  the  rocky  fragments.  Year  by 
year  the  decaying  leaves  and  stems  were  adding  to 
the  soil  on  top,  and  the  rain  and  roots  were  adding 
to  the  lower  surface  by  loosening  and  rotting  the 
rocks;  it  was  thus  the  soil  in  the  wood  lot  was  formed. 

There  are  other  soils,  however,  besides  alluvial 

and  native  soils.     We  will  speak  only  of  one.  the 

"drift."     The  soil  of  a  large  portion  of  our  country 

does  not  rest  upon  the  rock  from  which' 

n    '  it  was  made,  but  on  a  great  mass   of 

stones,  clay,  sand,  and  gravel.  These  materials  were 


66  Teaching  Geography. 

shifted  from  where  they  were  formed  and  deposited 
where  they  are  now  found.  As  they  are  too  heavy 
to  have  been  transported  by  water,  and  for  certain 
other  reasons,  it  is  believed  that  they  must  have 
been  brought  from  their  homes  by  the  action  of  the 
ice.  The  mass  is  so  deep  in  some  places  that  the 
roots  of  plants  never  reach  the  native  rock,  while  in 
other  places  so  much  of  it  has  been  worn  away  that 
the  rock  can  be  easily  reached. 

The  children  should  be  led  to  see  that  whether 
the  soil  is  alluvial,  native,  or  drift,  it  has  been 
formed  by  the  action  of  heat,  air,  frost,  and  water. 
They  should  be  made  to  feel  that  while  it  is  satisfy- 
ing" to  know  how  things  came  to  be  as  they  are,  the 
study  of  the  soil  has  a  still  higher  value,  as  it  is  the 
foundation  of  life.  The  boys  and  girls  cannot  be  too 
deeply  impressed  with  the  thought  of  their  indebt- 
edness to  the  soil. 

This  world  is  God's  training  school,  and  like  all 
his  works  it  is  well  adapted  to  the  accomplishment 
of  his  purpose.  It  is  abundantly  provided  with  all 
the  materials  and  forces  necessary  for  the  develop- 
ment of  man's  threefold  nature.  Land  and  sea  unite 
in  furnishing  him  with  a  variety  of  pleasing  and  nour- 
ishing foods.  The  study  of  the  forces 
The  World  ,  .    ?  ,.  Aw  At 

C  d'    s  h     l    wnicn  are  operating  around  him,  and  ot 

the  laws  which  govern  them,  affords  am- 
ple opportunity  for  the  development  of  his  intellect- 
ual powers;  while  the  beauty  and  sublimity  which 
surround  him  on  all  sides  are  sufficient  to  awaken 
and  cultivate  in  him  a  love  for  the  beautiful,  and 
cause  his  spiritual  nature  to  reach  out  after  the  Cre- 
ator and  Maker  of  all,  who  is  his  Father,  Teacher, 


Soil,  Vegetation,  and  Animals.  67 

and  Friend.  Any  other  view  of  the  purpose  of  the 
universe  is  unworthy  and  irrational.  It  mars  the 
harmony  which  should  exist  between  man  and  na- 
ture, while  this  view  transforms  all  creation,  man 
included,  into  a  rhythmic  poem. 

These  things  being" so,  it  follows  that  the  thoughts 
ot  the  children  should  at  an  early  age  be  turned,  not 
only  towards  the  forms  of  land  and  wa- 
"  *  ter,  with  the  forces  operating  upon  them, 

but  also  towards  the  wealth  of  plant  life 
by  which  they  are  surrounded.  This  is  necessary  to 
a  proper  understanding  of  what  their  geographies 
will  tell  later  of  the  vegetation  of  remote  regions. 
And  while  this  is  not  the  only  or  highest  purpose,  it 
is  sufficient  to  entitle  plant  study  to  some  consider- 
ation. It  is  possible,  even,  that  at  this  early  stage 
in  the  progress  of  the  pupils  it  should  be  made  the 
main  object  of  the  study;  the  scientific  phase  of  the 
subject  being  held  in  the  background  till  later.  What 
was  said  about  the  formation  and  character  of  the 
soils  will  form  a  natural  introduction  to  the  study 
of  plants,  their  forms,  habits,  and  uses. 

It  may  be  advisable  to  begin  with  the  food  plants, 

and  more  particularly  with  those  which  the  children 

can  see  growing  in  the  fields  and  gar- 
Cultivated  n  m,  +1  ,1 
„,                     dens.     The  more  common  they  are,  the 
Plants.                                                                            J 

more  worthy  of  study  they  may  be.  The 
very  fact  that  they  are  common  goes  a  long  way 
toward  proving  that  they  are  good.  The  so-called 
Irish  potato  has  been  of  more  value  to  the  world 
than  all  the  gold  and  silver  that  South  America  has 
ever  produced.  Its  crop  of  indian  corn  is  worth  far 
more  to  the  United  States  every  year  than  is  its  out- 


68  Teaching  Geography. 

put  of  the  precious  metals,  while  the  plebeian  rice 
plant,  from  the  marshes  of  India,  forms  the  staple 
article  of  food  of  the  millions  of  southern  Asia. 

Lack  of  time  will  not  permit  a  detailed  study  of 
each  of  the  food  plants,  and  such  a  study  is  not 
necessary  to  a  knowledge  of  geography.  A  few, 
however,  should  be  so  studied,  and  perhaps  the  In- 
dian corn  is  as  good  as  any  to  begin  with.    Children 

who  notice  the  seed  before  it  is  planted, 
Indian  Corn.  .,       r        n  i    ,  i         •,  i 

examine  it  a  few  days  later  when  it  has 

"sprouted,"  observe  the  blades  as  the}?' "come  above 
the  ground,  the  stalk  when  it  has  tassled,  the  ear 
with  its  silk,  and  learn  the  relation  of  the  ear,  stalk, 
and  tassel  to  each  other,  will  acquire  a  knowledge 
that  is  both  educative  and  "useful."  When  they 
have  followed  the  ripened  grain  from  the  field  to  the 
sheller,  from  the  sheller  to  the  ,  mill,  and  from 
the  mill  to  the  various  pleasing  and  nourishing 
articles  of  food  into  which  it  is  made,  their  edu- 
cation will  have  received  an  added  relish.  If  they 
are  foolish  enough  to  disdain  such  wholesome  food, 
they  may  feed  the  corn  to  the  stock  and  learn  that 
it  is  converted  into  meats  for  foreign  shipment,  or 
into  ham  and  eggs,  beefsteak  and  roasts,  and  milk 
and  butter,  for  home  consumption.  Or  if  they  do 
not  care  for  any  of  these,  they  can  see  both  corn 
and  meats  shipped  to  other  countries,  and  the  money 
for  which  they  are  sold  invested  in  coffee,  tea,  sugar, 
tropical  fruits,  spices,  silks  and  satins,  laces  and 
embroideries,  etc.,  with  which  to  tickle  their  pal- 
ates or  please  their  aesthetic  taste. 

Some  of  the  other  grains,  with  the  more  useful 
vegetables  and  fruits,  should  also  be  studied,  care 


Soil,  Vegetation,  and  Animals.  69 

being-  taken  to  begin  with  those  which  are  familiar; 
as  in  studying  such  the  experience  of  the  pupils  can 
be  most  successfully  appealed  to.  The  impetus 
acquired  through  interest  in  these  will  lead  to  a 
habit  of  thoughtful  observation,  which  is  the  foun- 
dation of  all  knowledge. 

The  study  of  the  uncultivated  plants  in  the  lower 

grades  should  also  be  carried  on  along  the  three  lines 

of  form,  habits,  and  uses.     Botany  can 

„,     .  no  more  be  learned  out  of  a  book  than 

Plants. 

can  geography.  It  is  the  study  of  plant 

life,  and  there  is  no  life  in  the  book.  That  contains 
simply  a  summary  of  what  men  have  learned  about 
plants,  and  while  it  is  not  the  purpose  to  make  bot- 
anists of  the  children  at  this  early  age,  there  is  no 
wisdom  in  keeping  them  from  studying  the  plants 
themselves,  especially  as  they  are  far  more  acces- 
sible and  interesting  than  the  books.  To  keep  on 
studying  about  a  thing  instead  of  studying  the  thing 
itself,  ought  to  be  as  unsatisfactory  as  it  would  be 
to  keep  talking  about  a  good  dinner  instead  of  eat- 
ing it  when  it  could  easily  be  obtained. 

By  studying  the  plants  in  the  home  neighborhood 
the  children  gather  such  a  stock  of  information  as  will 

enable  them  to  appreciate  in  a  measure 
Study  Home     ,,  ,.  r  c  ,    .  -, 

_,     f  the  vegetation  of  foreign  countries,  and 

Plants.  te  te 

to  enter  intelligently  upon  the  study  of 

the  science  of  botany.  The  accumulation  of  related 
facts  through  personal  observation  is  the  work  to  be 
accomplished. 

How  does  the  plant  look?  Can  the  children  name 
it  at  sight?  How  do  they  distinguish  it  from  others? 
Where  does  it  grow  most  abundantly  and  with  the 


70  Teaching  Geography. 

greatest  vigor,  on  wet  land  or  on  dry  ]and?  On  the 
sunny  slope,  or  in  the  shaded  glen?  For  what  is  it 
used?  Anything  in  its  character  that  fits  it  for  this 
purpose?  How  is  it  prepared  for  use?  The  answers 
to  these  questions,  and  to  others  that  will  suggest 
themselves  to  the  teacher,  ought  to  be  learned  by 
actual  observation,  and  not  from  reading  or  hear- 
say, or  even  from  the  study  of  pictures.  There  is 
material  enough  in  every  neighborhood  for  the  suc- 
cessful accomplishment  of  the  work,  as  it  is  not 
necessary  that  the  same  varieties  should  be  studied 
by  all. 

Do  the  children  know  the  most  common 
grasses?  They  can  be  found  almost 
everywhere,  and  are  both  beautiful  and  useful.  They 
not  only  form  the  principal  food  of  all  domestic  an- 
imals and  of  most  wild  ones,  they  also  fertilize  the 
land,  save  it  from  being  stripx)ed  of  its  soil,  and  pro- 
tect  nations  from  the  encroachments  of  the  sea. 
Flowers  are  plentiful.  God  has  strewn  them  in  pro- 
fusion over  the  earth.  Have  the  children  been  led  to 
notice  their  variety  of  form  and  color,  and  to  admire 
their  beauty?  Do  they  know  all  that  grow  within  a 
mile  of  the  school  house?  Does  the  teacher  know 
them?  Has  he  consciously  used  them  in  trying  to 
develop  the  love  of  the  beautiful  which  dwells  in  the 
souls  of  his  children?  If  not,  he  should  at  the  earliest 
opportunity  set  to  work  to  do  it. 

What  of  the  trees  "that  climb  the  moun- 
Trees 

tain  sides  to  greet  the  rising  sun,  and 

with  their  green  banners  to  wave  him  adieu  at  the 
close  of  day," — have  they  been  studied?  Have  the 
shapes  of  the  trunks,  the  arrangement  of  the  boughs 


Soil,  Vegetation,  and  Animals.  71 

upon  the  trees  and  of  the  leaves  upon  the  boughs, 
with  the  character  of  the  bark,  been  noticed?  Can 
the  children  tell  by  the  shape  of  the  leaf  and  its  plan 
of  venation  the  tree  to  which  it  belongs?  Does  an 
examination  of  the  seed  orfruit  enable  them  to  name 
at  once  the  tree  on  which  it  grew?  Do  they  know 
how  the  seeds  are  carried  from  one  place  to  another, 
and  how  fitted  to  be  thus  carried?  How  many  vari- 
ties  of  evergreens  do  they  know?  Is  the  larch  an 
evergreen?     The  pine?    The  fir,  etc.? 

To  show  the  usefulness  of  trees  it  may 
be  well  to  take  the  one  that  enters  into 
most  common  use.  Perhaps  the  pine  is  as  good  as 
any,  although  the  oak  and  maple  have  certain  ad- 
vantages. It  is  hoped  that  the  teacher  will  not 
begin  the  work  by  studying  foreign  trees,  simply 
because  they  may  be  remarkable  for  size  or  products. 
To  begin  with  the  banian  tree  of  Hindoostan,  the  tal- 
ipot palm  of  Ceylon,  or  the  "big  trees"  of  California 
would  be  unwise,  as  the  children  would  have  to  de- 
pend entirely  on  mediated  knowledge,  a  condition 
to  be  avoided  whenever  possible. 

It  may  be  that  no  pine  forests  are  accessible  to 
the  children,  yet  it  is  likely  that  they  see  pine  trees 
every  day, since  they  are  found  in  nearly  every  school 
district.  If  the  teacher  is  acquainted  with  the  fell- 
ing of  trees  and  the  hauling  of  logs,  let  him  take 
the  children  on  an  imaginarj7  excursion  to  a  logging 
camp.  It  will  be  helpful  for  them  to  see,  even 
through  his  eyes,  how  the  men  live  in  those  camps, 
fell  the  tall  trees,  saw  them  into  proper  lengths. 
and  haul  them  to  the  railroad  or  the  river,  to  be 
taken  to  the  sawmill.     He  can  interest  and  instruct 


72  Teaching  Geography. 

them  by  telling  them  how  the  logs  float 
um  en  g.  ^own  the  small  river  in  the  spring — 
sometimes  forming  jams  that  are  broken  up  by  the 
"drivers"  at  great  risk — how  they  are  stopped  by 
the  boom  across  the  river  and  taken  to  the  sawmill 
which  is  near  by,  or  formed  into  rafts  and  floated  to 
others  at  distant  points.  If  the  children  can  visit  a 
sawmill  and  see  the  logs  being  sawed  into  boards, 
timbers,  laths,  shingles,  etc.,  the  sight  will  be  of 
value  to  them  A  sawmill,  however,  is  a  dangerous 
place  for  children,  but  they  can  with  safety  visit  a 
lumberyard  and  see  the  various  forms  into  which  the 
logs  have  been  sawed.  It  will  also  be  helpful  to 
take  them  where  a  house  is  building  and  let  them 
see  in  what  part  of  the  structure  the  different  tim- 
bers enter,  being  careful  to  give  the  names,  such  as 
sills,  studding,  joists,  rafters,  flooring,  etc. 

Other  uses  made  of  pine  should  be  mentioned,  the 
children  being  encouraged  to  name  as  many  as  pos- 
sible. They  may  have  heard  or  read  that  turpen- 
tine, tar,  pitch,  and  resin  are  obtained  from  the  pine 
tree,  and  the  teacher  will  need  to  be  prepared  to  tell 
how  they  are  obtained.  The  advisability  of  discus- 
sing the  varieties  of  pine  is  doubtful.  Classification 
as  such  has  noplace  here, although  it  is  recommended 
that  the  work  be  done  in  a  systematic  and  orderly 
way;  but  the  order  must  not  be  made  too  prominent, 
lest  the  children  consider  it  the  principal  thing,  and 
thus  the  real  purpose  of  the  work  be  defeated. 

Vegetable  life  is  not  the  only  kind  of  life 

.      ,  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school  house. 

Animals.  J 

Animal  life  exists  there  in  great  abund- 
ance and  in  varied  forms.     And  since  this  resembles 


Soil,  Vegetation,  and  Animals.  73 

human  life  more  closely  than  does  the  life  of  the  veg- 
etable, its  study  will  be  more  interesting-  to  the  chil- 
dren, Many  children  have  pet  animals,  others  would 
like  to  have  them.  If  the  pet  is  a  calf,  a  lamb,  or  a 
chicken,  its  study  may  be  made  the  avenue  to  the 
study  of  the  domestic  animals.  If  it  is  a  rabbit,  a 
squirrel,  or  a  canary,  its  study  ought  to  lead  to  the 
study  of  the  wild  animals.  Here,  as  well  as  else- 
where, the  study  of  the  familiar  should  come  first. 
Familiarity  need  not  breed  contempt,  and  will  not 
unless  the  teacher  keeps  his  pupils  studying  the  fa- 
miliar so  long  that  they  become  disgusted.  Some 
teachers  do  this,  and  the  result  is  usually  disastrous. 
It  would  not  be  at  all  strange  if  the  boy  knew  more 
about  a  dog,  and  the  girl  more  about  a  cat,  than  does 
the  teacher.  These  animals  will  do  very  well  to  be- 
gin with,  and  the  boy  should  be  encouraged  to  tell 
all  he  knows  about  the  dog's  affections  for  his  mas- 
ter, his  faithfulness,  and  his  usefulness;  this  know- 
ledge may  be  profitably  supplemented  with  stories 
from  books,  bearing  on  the  same  points.  The  girl 
may  tell  about  the  affection  and  faithfulness  of  the 
cat,  also  its  usefulness.  Both  of  the  children,  by  a 
little  guidance, can  be  led  to  see  how  admirably  these 
animals  are  fitted  to  fulfill  the  purpose  of  their  exist- 
ence. 

When  entering  upon  the  study  of  the  animais 
found  in  the  home  neighborhood,  it  may  be  wise  to 
have  the  children  make  a  list  of  all  the  animals  they 
know — those  they  have  seen.  Such  a  list  will  show 
that  many  of  them  have  been  close  observers,  and. 
as  a  consequence,  know  more  of  the  habits  of  the 
animals  than  do  some  of  their  adult  friends;  it  will 


74 


Teaching  Geography. 


also  prove  a  valuable  guide  to  the  teacher  in  deter- 
mining- the  animals  to  be  studied.  The  animals  in 
the  following  list  were  known  to  a  boy  eight  years 
of  age.  He  had  seen  all  of  them,  and  could  name 
them  at  sight.  He  had  seen  others  in  the  circus 
procession,  but  they  are  not  given  in  the  list: 


Dog  Goose 

Cat,  Duck, 

Horse,  Guinea  hen, 

Mule,  Robin, 

Cow,  Sparrow, 

Sheep,  Peacock, 

Hog,  Blackbird, 

Rabbit,  Crow, 

Gopher,  Pigeon, 

Chipmunk,  Bluejay, 

Squirrel,  Woodpecker, 

Bear,  Humming  bird, 

Raccoon,  Canary, 

Skunk,  Meadow  lark, 

Rat,  Fish  (several 
Mouse,  kinds, 

Monkey,  Snake  (several 
Chicken,  kinds), 

Turkey,  Crayfish, 

These  animals,  with  a  few  exceptions 
may  be  found  in  almost  any  country 
neighborhood,  and  many  of  them  can  be 
found  in  the  crowded  city — in  the  parks,  on  the 
shade  trees,  and  on  the  grass  plats  that  border 
many  of  the  streets.  And  while  it  is  true  that  in 
studying  nature,  the  country  pupil  has  some  advan- 
tage over  the  city  pupil,  it  is  also  true  that  in  some 
respects  the  latter  has  the  advantage.  The  public 
parks  and  gardens  afford  him  an  opportunity  to 
study  many  plants  and  trees  that  are  not  found  in 


Clam, 
Frog. 
Toad, 
Butterfly, 
Caterpillar, 
Grasshopper, 
Mosquito, 
Spider, 
Bee, 
Ant, 
Wasp, 
House  fly, 
Bugs  (beetles 
in  general). 
Potato  bugs, 
Cabbage  worm, 
"Fishing"  worm, 
Firefly, 
Miller, 


Method 
of  Study. 


Soil,  Vegetation,  and  Animals.  75 

the  country  district;  while  ready  access  to  the  men- 
agerie and  zoological  garden  enables  him  to  study 
animals  which  the  country  pupil  can  only  see  in  con- 
nection with  the  circus,  and  the  circus  is  not  always 
accessible.  The  fact  is  both  city  and  country  have 
sufficient  material,  though  differing  in  kind.  A 
slight  difference  in  the  forms  of  life  is  of  little  con- 
sequence. The  important  thing  is  that  the  children 
be  led  to  study  such  animals  as  they  can  find,  and 
note  their  relation  to  the  environment. 

The  study  of  the  science  of  zoology  is.  not  the  pur- 
pose here,  yet  this  work  should  prove  an  intelligent 
introduction  to  the  study  of  the  science  at  the  proper 
time.  It  will  not  answer  this  end  if  the  time  is  spent 
in  studying  about  animals  instead  of  studying  the 
animals  themselves.  Even  at  the  risk  of  weary- 
ing the  reader  by  the  oft  repeated  admonition,  it 
must  again  be  urged  upon  the  teacher  that  unless 
the  children  see  the  animals  they  are  studying,  the 
value  of  the  work  will  be  reduced  to  the  minimum. 
The  above  list,  while  not  containing  all  the  animals 
that  may  be  found  in  almost  any  neighborhood,  is 
full  enough  to  show  that  there  is  no  dearth  of  ma- 
terial. 

As  this  book  is  intended  to  be  suggestive  simply, 
no  course  of  study  is  indicated,  as,  to  be  of  the  great- 
est worth,  the  work  must  be  laid  out  by  each  teacher 
for  his  own  school.  In  doing  this,  it  is  probable  that 
he  will  plan  to  have  the  cow  and  horse  studied  next 
after  the  cat  and  dog.*  They  should  be  studied  with 
reference  to  form,  color,  size,  movements,  and  use- 


♦McMurry's  Special  Method  in  Science  is  an  excellent  guide  in  this 
study;  published  by  Public-School  Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington.  111. 


76  Teaching  Geography. 

fulness  to  man.  The  chicken  may  be  studied  first  as 
a  type  of  fowls  in  general,  and  then  compared  with 
the  duck  or  goose;  the  leading  differences  will  be 
noticed  by  the  children.  In  studying  the  wild  birds, 
those  injurious  to  fruits  should  be  named,  although 
it  is  doubtful  if  there  is  any  bird  that  does  not  pay 
for  what  fruit  it  eats  or  destroys,  by  its  destruction 
of  hurtful  insects. 

Perhaps  the  study  of  no  other  form  of  life  will 
afford  so  many  pleasant  surprises  as  will  that  of  in- 
sects. Almost  every  neighborhood,  city, 

or  country,  teems  with  such  forms,  and 
Insects. 

many  of  them  are  very  beautiful.  All 
insects  do  not  injure  fruits  or  vegetables,  and  one 
of  the  purposes  of  this  work  should  be  to  point  out 
those  which  do.  That  was  one  of  the  objects  of  the 
legislators  who  made  the  law  requiring  the  teaching 
of  elementary  zoology  in  the  public  schools.  But 
teachers  and  county  superintendents,  by  setting  the 
children  to  learning  long  lists  of  animals  which  they 
have  not  seen,  and  many  of  which  they  never  will 
see,  have  made  worthless  the  good  intentions  of  the 
lawmakers. 

If  this  subject  is  treated  as  it  should  be,  it  will 
lead  the  children  to  be  kind  to  animals.  There  is 
need  of  this.  Some  boys  are  young  savages,  not 
having  yet  reached  even  the  barbarous  state.  They 
love  to  inflict  pain  simply  to  see  the  suffering  they 
can  cause.  This  is  wrong.  No  xme  has  a  right  to 
inflict  pain  on  any  being,  even  the  lowest,  for  the 
sake  of  gratifying  his  lower  passions.  Life  must  be 
taken  at  times  to  support  higher  life,  and  for  scien- 
tific investigation;  even  then  no  unnecessary  suffer- 


Soil,  Vegetation,  and  Animals.  77 

ing  should  be  caused.  Destructive  insects,  venomous 
reptiles, and  dangerous  wild  beasts  must  be  destroyed 
to  protect  humanity,  but  there  should  be  no  cruel  or 
long-  drawn-out  tortures.  Life  is  sacred  and  should 
never  be  destroyed  without  sufficient  cause,  and  then 

with  the  least  pain.  Ruthless  destruc- 
LJfe  Is 

Sacred  ^on  °^  even  *-ne  l°wer  forms  of  life  has 

a  bad  effect  on  the  character  and  dispo- 
sition of  the  children.  The  boy  who  takes  pleasure 
in  pulling  a  live  fly  to  pieces,  or  in  crushing  a  worm 
under  his  heel,  will  soon  become  hardened  enough  to 
destroy  the  nest  and  kill  the  young  birds  simply  to 
see  the  anguish  of  their  parents.  Cruelt}^  to  domes- 
tic animals  whose  lives  are  given  to  his  service  is 
sure  to  follow,  and  this  in  turn  leads  to  unkindness 
towards  his  human  associates.  And  even  if  such  a 
boy,  or  the  man  into  whose  likeness  he  grows,  never 
commits  murder,  he  is  reasonably  sure  to  become  an 
Ishmaelite  whose  hand  will  be  against  every  man, 
and  every  man's  hand  against  him. 

Yes,  lead  the  children  to  observe  the  animals  in 
their  home  neighborhood,  to  study  their  habits  and 
to  notice  how  admirably  they  are  fitted  to  serve  the 
purposes  of  their  creation;  but  at  the  same  time 
teach  them  to  be  kind  to  all  living  creatures.  Im- 
press it  upon  them  that  gentleness  begets  gentle- 
ness, that  kindness  leaves  no  sting,  and  that  mercy 
towards  even  the  inferior  forms  of  life  is  an  indica 
tion  of  a  manly  character. 


78  Teaching  Geography. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


IMPORTANCE   OP   LABOIt. 

The  last  chapter  treated  briefly  of  the  manner 
in  which  soils  are  formed,  and  of  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal life.  A  way  of  approach  to  the  study  of  the 
vegetable  and  animal  forms  found  in  the  environ- 
ment of  the  children  was  shown.  The  importance 
of  the  work  as  a  preparation  for  the  intelligent 
study  of  these  forms  of  life  in  remoter 

*e?L    ™,    tl  regions  was  urged  with  some  degree  of 
of  the  World.       &>  &  <=> 

earnestness;  and  it  is  believed  that  the 
subject  called  for  still  greater  earnestness,  as  it  is 
unreasonable  to  expect  children  to  appreciate  de- 
scriptions of  the  flora  and  fauna  of  regions  a  thou- 
sand miles  away,  unless  they  are  equipped  with 
sufficient  apperceiving  knowledge  acquired  by  a 
study  of  their  own  locality.  Much  less  will  they  be 
able  to  trace  the  influence  of  the  physical  features 
and  climate  upon  vegetation  and  animal  life  in  those 
far-away  countries,  unless  they  have  learned  to  do 
so,  as  far  as  possible,  in  the  vicinity  of  their  own 
homes.  The  study  of  the  home  neighborhood  is  the 
key  to  the  study  of  the  world;  and  without  this  key 
no  one  can  enter  into  the  enjoyments  in  store  for 
those  possessing  it. 

It  is  time  to  call  the  attention  of  the  children  to 
the  imi)ortance  of  labor.  Plants  and  animals  fur- 
uish  man  with  food  and  clothing,  or  rather  with  the 


Importance  of  Labor.  79 

materials  which  by  work  can  be  made  into  food  and 
Need  of  clothing.   The  tilling  of  the  soil  requires 

Labor.  labor,  so  does  the  rearing  of  domestic 

animals.  The  trees  of  the  forest  require  much  labor 
to  change  them  into  lumber,  and  then  with  the  lum- 
ber to  build  houses  to  protect  people  fi-om  the  in- 
clemency of  the  weather.  Cotton,  wool,  flax,  and 
silk  would  not  answer  for  clothing  were  it  not  for 
the  labor  expended  upon  them.  And  to  prepare  the 
skins  of  animals  and  make  them  into  boots  and  shoes 
also  requires  labor.  By  these  and  other  illustrations 
the  children  may  be  led  to  see  the  importance  and 
worth  of  labor  in  converting  raw  materials  into 
usable  articles. 

Man  needs  not  only  food  and  clothing;  he  also 
needs  a  fire  with  which  to  cook  his  food  and  warm 
his  home  in  winter.  In  most  parts  of  this  country 
the  fuel  consists  of  wood  or  coal.  The  children  will 
know  the  manner  in  which  wood  is  obtained  and  pre- 
pared for  use,  but  the  method  by  which  coal  is  pro- 
cured may  be  new  to  many  of  them,  especially  if 
they  do  not  live  near  a  coal  mine.  An 
explanation  of  this  will  introduce  the 
subject  of  coal-mining.  If  the  teacher  has  visited  a 
mine,  descended  the  shaft,  seen  the  miners  at  work, 
and  has  noticed  how  the  coal  is  brought  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  shaft  and  then  raised  to  the  surface,  he 
can  describe  the  several  processes  to  the  children  in 
a  more  vivid  and  interesting  manner  than  he  can  if 
his  knowledge  has  been  obtained  entirely  from  books 
or  hearsay.  And  they  will  be  led  by  his  description 
to  see  the  value  of  labor,  and  to  think  more  kindly 
of  the  men   who  work  several   hundred   feet  under 


80  Teaching  Geography. 

ground,  away  from  the  light  of  the  sun,  the  beauty 
of  the  trees  and  flowers,  and  the  songs  of  the  birds; 
and  who  are  all  the  time  in  more  or  less  danger  of 
being  injured  or  killed  by  falling  rocks. 

From  coal-mining  the  teacher  can  easily  pass  to 
iron-mining,  and  to  an  explanation  of  the  processes 
through  which  the  iron  passes  from  the  time  it  is 
mined  until  it  is  made  into  stoves,  railroad-rails, 
locomotives,  etc.  Such  an  explanation  can  be  made 
both  interesting  and  profitable;  and  so  can  an  ex- 
planation of  the  processes  through  which  any  min- 
eral passes  from  leaving  the  mine  until  made  into 
such  articles  as  best  serve  the  purposes  of  man.  It 
is  advisable,  however,  that  the  work  be  confined 
mainly,  if  not  entirely,  to  the  study  of  such  minerals 
as  the  children  can  see  mined. 

There  are  few  neighborhoods  in  which 
Manufac=  ,.   ,  c      ,         -.       T, 

some  articles  are  not  manufactured.  It 
tures. 

may  be  that  the  children  see  a  shoe- 
maker at  work  day  by  day  as  they  pass  from  their 
homes  to  school,  to  the  store,  or  to  the  postoffice. 
They  may  have  noticed  the  harness-maker,  the 
wagon-maker,  or  the  cooper,  each  working  at  his 
trade.  The  children  know  that  all  of  these  make 
things,  but  they  may  not  know  that  to  make  things 
is  to  manufacture  them,  and  that  those  who  make 
them  are  manufacturers.  As  soon  as  they  learn  that 
to  make  and  to  manufacture  are  the  same,  they  will 
be  ready  to  name  several  lines  of  manufactures 
which  are  carried  on  near  home.  The  gristmill, 
brickyard,  and  stove  foundry,  if  accessible,  should 
be  visited. 


Importance  of  Labor.  81 

In  teaching  the  subject  of  manufactures,  teachers 
in  the  city  have  a  decided  advantage  over  those  in 
the  country.  Their  pupils  can  visit  factories,  shops, 
and  foundries,  and  so  get  their  ideas  at  first  hand, 
while  in  some  country  neighborhoods,  the  oppor- 
tunities to  do  so  are  very  meager;  and  it  is  only  by 
the  exercise  of  considerable  skill  that  the  teacher  is 
able  to  interest  the  children,  especially  as  their 
parents  buy  in  the  nearest  town  or  city  such  manu- 
factured articles  as  they  need.  This  condition  of 
things,  however,  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  lead- 
ing to  the  subject  of  commerce. 

While  many  people  are  engaged  in  manufactur- 
ing various  articles,  a  larger  number  are  engaged  in 
other  occupations.  In  this  country  more  people  are 
employed  in  farming,or  agriculture, than 
Commerce.  jn  any  other  business.  To  farm  success- 
fully, the  farmers  need  plows,  harrows, 
rollers,  harvesters,  mowers,  etc.  These  they  pro- 
cure by  taking  their  grain,  horses,  cattle,  and  hogs 
to  town  and  selling  them  for  money,  and  with  the 
money  buying  such  articles  as  they  need.  This  buy- 
ing and  selling  is  trade  or  commerce,  and  there  is  so 
much  of  it  being  carried  on  that  a  great  many  men 
have  to  devote  all  of  their  time  to  it.  Such  men  are 
known  by  various  names,  as  grain-dealers,  cattle- 
dealers,  etc.,  but  the  general  name,  merchants,  will 
answer  for  all  of  them,  although  there  is  a  tendency 
to  confine  the  term  to  those  who  keep  in  buildings, 
or  "stores,"  the  articles  they  have  for  sale.  The 
farmer  buys,  not  only  his  farming  implements,  but 
also  the  clothing  for  his  family,  the  furniture  for  his 
home,  and  some  of  his  food  even,  especially  tea,  cof- 


82  Teaching  Geography. 

fee,  sugar,  spices,  foreign  fruits,  etc.  Some  of  these 
he  may  be  able  to  buy  of  the  manufacturers,  but  as 
a  general  thing  he  buys  all  of  them  from  the  mer- 
chants, or  tradesmen. 

It  would  be  of  great  value  to  the  children  if  in 
company  with  the  teacher  they  could  visit  several 
kinds  of  stores.  Many  owners  or  managers  would 
permit  the  teacher  to  bring  his  class  to  their  stores, 
and  would  cheerfully  devote  half  an  hour  to  enlight- 
ening the  pupils  as  to  the  places  and  manner  in 
which  his  goods  were  manufactured,  and  how  they 
reached  his  store.  If  only  one  of  these  establish- 
ments is  visited,  let  it  be  a  grocery  store.  This  will 
afford  excellent  opportunities,  not  only  for  studying 
commerce,  but  also  for  studying  many  fruits  and 
other  products  from  foreign  countries,  and  from  re- 
mote parts  of  our  own. 

The  children  by  this  time  ought  to  be 
able  to  see  that  good  roads  are  helpful 
in  the  carrying  on  of  commerce.  Good  wagon  roads 
leading  from  various  parts  of  the  country  to  the 
towns -are  essential.  If  the  roads  are  poor,  there 
may  be  several  weeks  at  a  time  in  which  the  farmer 
cannot  take  the  products  of  his  farm  to  the  maket 
in  town.  He  is  mud-bound.  If  any  of  his  family  is 
taken  sick,  it  is  with  great  difficulty  that  he  obtains 
a  physician  from  town.  The  inconvenience  of  poor 
roads  and  the  advantages  of  good  ones  ought  to 
be  impressed  upon  the  pupils.  Some  of  them  will 
soon  be  the  influential  men  and  women  of  their  com- 
munities, and  these  simple  lessons  may,  in  the  near 
future,  lead  to  great  improvement  in  our  country 
roads  and  village  streets. 


Importance  of  Labor.  83 

The  importance  of  railroads  should  also 
be  pointed  out,  and  the  manner  of  their 
construction  explained.  The  children  will  under- 
stand the  subject  well  enough  to  pay  the  teacher  for 
his  trouble.  All  people  are  interested  in  railroads, 
or  ought  to  be.  They  are  a  great  convenience,  as 
even  the  children  can  readily  see.  By  means  of  such 
roads  they  are  able  to  visit  friends  at  a  distance  in 
a  comparatively  short  time,  protected  from  storms 
and  cold.  Or  if  they  do  not  care  to  go  themselves, 
they  can  send  a  letter  and  it  will  speedily  reach 
their  expectant  friends.  Every  town  of  considerable 
size  has  at  least  one  railroad.  The  pupils  have  seen 
the  trains  standing  at  the  station  or  moving  on  the 
track.  They  know  that  one  engine  can  haul  as 
much  coal,  lumber,  grain,  etc.,  to  the  distant  city  in 
one  day,  as  many  horses  can  in  a  week;  and  that 
many  kinds  of  articles  would  spoil  before  reach- 
ing their  destination  if  they  had  to  be  taken  in 
wagons.  They  admire  the  engine,  and  wonder  how 
it  is  able  to  haul  such  heavily-laden  trains.  A  few 
general  facts  about  its  construction,  and  about  the 
power  of  steam  may  be  given  with  profit,  if  the 
teacher  understands  the  subjects,  and  it  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  he  does.  If  he  does  not  wish  to  do 
this,  or  feels  unequal  to  the  task,  there  is  something 
he  can  do,  and  ought  to  do,  and  that  is  to  point  out 
to  the  children  the  impropriety  of  loitering  around 
the  station  when  they  have  no  business  there,  or  of 
defacing  or  injuring  the  building  or  its  furniture. 
The  children  should  be  made  to  feel  that  to  scribble 
on  the  walls  or  seats  is  not  only  vulgar,  but  it  is 
positively  wrong". 


84  Teaching  Geography. 

The  postoffice  also  is  an  important  aid 
Postoffice.  mi         i-ii  u    i  i 

to  commerce.      The  children  probably 

have  not  thought  of  it  in  this  connection.  To  them 
it  has  only  been  a  means  of  communication  between 
separated  friends.  When  father  or  mother,  brother 
or  sister,  is  away  from  home,  they  go  to  the  post- 
office  frequently,  hoping  to  get  a  letter  from  the  ab- 
sent one.  They  are  glad  when  it  comes,  read  it  over 
and  over,  and  hasten  to  answer  it,  as  they  know 
their  friend  is  anxious  to  hear  from  them. 

The  social  value  of  the  postoffice  the  children 
will  readily  appreciate,  but  its  commercial  import- 
ance may  not  be  evident.  The  teacher  can  make  it 
clear,  however,  by  a  few  simple  talks,  and  while 
doing  so  he  can  impart  some  useful  knowledge  in 
regard  to  postal  matters  and  letter  writing.  The 
size  and  quality  of  the  paper  used,  the  proper  man- 
ner to  begin  and  end  a  letter,  how  to  fold  it,  and 
the  appropriate  kind  of  envelope,  are  proper  sub- 
jects of  instruction;  so  is  the  place  for  the  address 
and  stamp. 

Good  taste  should  be  observed  in  all  these  mat- 
ters. Possibly  the  children  will  now  learn  for  the 
first  time  that  the  value  of  the  stamp  depends  on 
the  weight  of  the  letter,  and  on  whether  it  is  ad- 
dressed to  some  point  in  our  own  country,  or  to  a 
foreign  country.  It  will  not  come  amiss  to  follow 
the  letter,  in  imagination,  from  the  time  it  is 
"dropped"  into  the  postoffice  until  it  reaches  the 
person  for  whom  it  is  intended. 

The  great  importance  of  the  telegraph 
Telegraph  and .  ..  .,,  „ 

Tit.  ]ii  connection  with  commerce,  as  well 

Telephone. 

as  in  social  life,  should  be  made  the 


Importance  of  Labor.  85 

theme  for  a  few  lessons.  If  the  merchant  desires 
to  have  his  goods  shipped  at  once  from  some  dis- 
tant city,  he  telegraphs  for  them,  and  by  so  doing 
receives  them  sooner  than  he  would  had  he  written, 
as  the  wire  carries  his  order  faster  than  the  train 
could.  By  getting  his  goods  in  less  time  than  he 
would  had  he  sent  the  order  by  mail,  he  may  sell 
them  at  a  larger  profit,  and  also  be  able  to  retain 
the  customers  who  might  have  purchased  elsewhere 
had  he  not  telegraphed  his  order.  The  convenience 
of  the  telegraph  in  sending  messages  to  friends  at  a 
distance,  especially  in  cases  of  sickness  or  death, 
will  be  apparent  to  the  children.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary, or  perhaps  advisable,  for  the  teacher  to  enter 
into  the  details  of  telegraphy,  yet  it  is  reasonable 
to  expect  him  to  show  its  importance  and  explain 
the  general  principles  on  which  the  telegraph  is 
constructed  and  operated. 

The  telephone  is  in  such  common  use  that  it  is 
not  thought  necessary  to  urge  upon  the  teacher  the 
duty  of  explaining  its  principles  to  the  children. 
So  many  of  them  use  it,  that  in  all  probability  they 
will  ask  for  the  explanation,  and  he  cannot  well  re- 
fuse their  request. 

The  discussion  of  the  telegraph  and  tel- 
Electric 

,.  .  .  ephone  will  lead  to  the  subjects  of  elec- 

tric lights  and  electric  streetcars.  They 
have  much  in  common.  The  poles  and  wires  are 
found  in  connection  with  all,  while  the  power  that 
does  the  work  is  invisible.  A  simple  explanation  of 
the  battery  will  remove  in  a  measure  the  mystery 
which  enshrouds  the  telegraph  and  telephone,  and 
a  visit  to  the  power  house  will  reveal  how  the  force 


86  Tea  citing  Geography. 

which  lights  our  streets  and  homes  and  propels  the 
street  cars,  is  generated.  The  teacher  ought  to  ar- 
range for  such  a  visit.  If  it  is  properly  planned  and 
improved,  the  children  will  be  impressed  more  than 
ever  with  the  importance  of  labor. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  suggestions  made 

in  these  articles  on  the  beginnings  of 
for 
Book  Study.  £eoS"raPhy  will  remind  the  teacher  of 
other  subjects  which  he  can  profitably 
teach  at  this  time.  No  better  work  can  be  done  for 
the  children  than  to  lead  them  to  observe  and  study 
the  forces  that  are  operating  all  around  them,  both 
in  the  physical  and  social  worlds.  A  knowledge  of 
these  will  put  meaning  into  the  operations  of  like 
forces  in  regions  lying  out  of  their  field  of  vision, 
and  will  render  the  study  of  the  text-book  interest- 
ing and  profitable. 

To  make  the  transition  from  oral  work  to  the 
study  of  the  text  easy  and  gradual,  brief  descrip- 
tions of  places  and  industries  should  be  read  occa- 
sionally in  the  class.  Pictures  also  can  be  used  to 
advantage;  and  simple  sketch  maps  of  known  lo- 
calities placed  on  the  board  in  the  presence  of  the 
class,  will  be  helpful.  To  find  materials  for  such 
maps,  short  excursions  by  teacher  and  pupils  are 
necessary.  The  places  and  objects  visited  should 
be  discussed  afterwards  in  the  schoolroom,  before 
being  represented  by  either  maps  or  pictures.  When 
the  regions  made  accessible  by  these  actual  excur- 
sions are  studied,  the  children  will  be  ready  to  go 
with  the  teacher  on  imaginary  excursions,  and  not 
only  be  prepared  to  read  intelligently  the  map  show- 
ing their  route,  but  what  is  better,  they  will  be  able 
to  make  the  map. 


Map  Representation.  87 


CHAPTER  X. 


MAP   REPRESENTATION. 

The  following  suggestions  may  assist  the  teacher 
in  introducing'  the  subject  of  map  drawing: 

"We  are  now  ready  to  make  a  map  of  the  school 
room,  but  neither  your  slates  nor  the  blackboard  is 
large  enough  to  make  the  map  as  large  as  the  floor. 
So  you  must  let  a  short  line  on  the  board  stand  for  a 
longer  one  on  the  floor,  and  a  still  shorter  one  on 
your  slates  must  answTer  for  the  same  line.  We  can 
let  an  inch,  or  even  less,  on  the  board  stand  for  a 
foot,  a  yard,  a  rod,  or  a  line  of  any  length  we  please; 
this  is  making  the  map  on  a  scale. 

"Charles  has  measured  the  north  side 
M  of  the  room  and  found  that  it  is  thirty- 

drawing,  three  feet.      You  may  all  pass  to  the 

board  on  the  north  side,  and  as  high  as 
you  can  reach  conveniently  draw  a  horizontal  line 
thirty-three  inches  long;  this  is  making  the  map  on 
the  scale  of  an  inch  to  a  foot.  Alice  has  measured 
the  west  side  and  found  that  it  is  twenty-five  feet, 
so  the  line  that  represents  it  on  the  board  must  be 
how  long?  It  must  be  what  kind  of  a  line?  With 
which  end  of  the  horizontal  line  must  it  be  connected? 
Remember  that  we  learned  some  time  ago  that  when 
facing  north,  east  is  on  our  right  and  west  on  our 
left;  hence  this  line  must  be  connected  with  which 
end  of  the  horizontal  line?  'The  left  hand  end.' 
That  is  right  Mary.     Since  the  east  side  is  equal  in 


88  Teaching  Geography. 

length  to  the  west  side,  and  the  south  side  to  the 
north,  we  need  not  measure  those,  but  may  at  once 
draw  the  lines  which  represent  them.  What  is  the 
name  of  the  figure  we  now  have  on  the  board?  This 
rectangle  stands  for  what?"  etc.,  etc. 

The  teacher  should  have  the  children  point  to  the 
side  of  the  room  for  which  each  of  the  lines  stands, 
and  the  corner  which  is  represented  by  each  of  the 
angles.  Let  him  keep  at  this  drill  work  until  his 
pupils  answer  readily  and  correctly,  but  not  after 
their  answers  and  general  demeanor  show  that  they 
are  weary  of  the  work. 

The  position  of  the  door,  the  teacher's  desk,  the 
rows  of  desks,  the  desks  in  each  row,  and  every- 
thing else  that  appears  on  the  map  should  be  deter- 
mined by  actual  measurement  by  the  class;  but 
nothing  should  appear  that  does  not  touch  the  floor; 
hence,  neither  the  windows  nor  the  pictures  that 
hang  on  the  wall  can  be  shown. 

This  lesson  affords  an  excellent  opportunity  for 
reviewing  the  preceding  work.  And  as  the  require- 
ments of  good  teaching  demand  in  each  lesson  the 
taxing  of  the  power  previously  acquired  by  the  pu- 
pils, it  is  desirable  that  this  opportunity  for  review 
should  be  improved. 

All  objects  represented  on  the  map  of  the  school 

room  were  where  the  pupil  could  see  them  as  he  was 

making  the  map,  hence  the  work  called 
Hap  of  the        .    ,  ,.    .,  ini 

s  h     I  Y    d     int°  activity  only  his  observing  powers 

and  Vicinity.    anc^  n^s  judgment.      But   in   making  a 
map  of  the  school  yard  and  vicinity  he 
will  find  it  necessary  to  use  his  memory  and  imagi- 
nation in  addition  to  the  powers  already  named,  as 


Map  Representation.  89 

he  cannot  from  his  position  at  the  blackboard  or  desk 
see  allot  the  objects  which  he  is  trying  to  represent. 

Before  beginning  the  map  the  children  should 
measure  the  yard  and  find  out  its  length  and  width. 
When  this  is  done  they  should  go  to  the  board  and 
make  the  map,  as  the  teacher  dictates  somewhat 
after  the  following  fashion: 

1  'Place  your  rulers  horizontally  against  the  black- 
board and  as  high  as  you  can  reach  conveniently. 
Ready!  Draw  a  line  as  many  inches  long  as  the 
north  side  of  the  yard  is  rods  in  length.  This  is 
making  the  map  on  what  scale?  On  what  scale  did 
we  make  the  map  of  the  school  room'?  Prom  the 
left  hand  end  of  this  line  draw  a  vertical  line  as 
many  inches  long  as  the  yard  is  rods  wide.  This  line 
stands  for  which  side  of  the  yard?  How  long  is  it? 
What  is  the  length  of  the  line  that  stands  for  the 
north  side  of  the  yard?  The  angle  formed  on  the 
board  stands  for  which  corner  of  the  yard?  You  may 
now  draw  a  line  to  represent  the  east  end  of  the 
yard.  This  is  parallel  to  what  line?  Complete 
the  diagram  by  drawing  the  line  that  stands  for  the 
south  side.  What  is  the  name  of  this  figure?  For 
what  does  it  stand?"  etc. 

Let  the  school  house  be  shown  in  its  proper  place, 
and  on  the  same  scale  as  the  yard.  The  position  of 
the  gates,  coal  house,  well,  and  flower  beds  should 
be  shown  by  actual  measurement  by  the  pupils.  If 
there  are  no  flowerbeds  in  the  yard,  it  is  the  teacher's 
fault — that  is,  it  is  some  teacher's  fault.  If  teachers 
only  appreciated  the  wonderful  influence  of  the 
beautiful  upon  children,  there  would  be  fewer  such 
ill-kept  and  disgraceful  looking  yards  as  are  now 


90  Teaching  Geography. 

found  in  the  towns  and  villages  of  the  state.  Let  the 
teacher  cultivate  them,  and  encourage  the  children 
to  cultivate  them,  both  in  the  school  yard  and  at 
their  homes.  By  doing  so  he  will  prove  himself  a 
public  benefactor. 

The  pupils  may  next  show  the  streets  that  border 
on  the  school  yard,  the  principal  business  streets, 
the  streets  on  which  they  travel  in  going  from  the 
school  house  to  the  postoffice,  from  the  school  house 
to  the  park,  from  their  homes  to  the  school  house, 
etc.  Let  the  position  of  the  court  house,  principal 
churches,  and  other  public  buildings  be  indicated. 
If  there  is  a  bridge  in  town,  let  its  position  be  shown, 
and  the  direction  of  the  stream  which  it  spans.  The 
railroad  station  should  be  carefully  located,  and  the 
position  of  the  railroads  which  pass  through  the 
village  or  immediate  neighborhood  should  be  plainly 
shown. 

In  mapping  the  streets  the  scale  must  be  Changed, 
else  the  map  will  be  too  large  for  the  board.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  let  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  or  even 
less,  stand  for  a  rod.  But  as  the  children  have  mas- 
tered the  idea  of  scale  fairly  well  by  this  time,  they 
will  experience  no  serious  trouble  from  the  change. 

The  teacher  should  not  enter  into  details  too 
much,  and  attempt  to  show  too  many  places  on  the 
map.  Many  err  right  here.  They  insist  on  showing 
every  street  and  alley  in  the  town,  and  in  some  cities 
even  the  ward  boundaries  are  shown.  This  is  a  mis- 
take due,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that  they  do  not  appre- 
ciate the  real  purpose  of  the  work.  They  make  the  ac- 
quisition of  facts  the  chief  end,  whereas  the  true  end 
is  the  cultivation  of  the  children's  mental  powers;  the 
acquisition  of  facts  being  simply  a  means  to  an  end. 


Map  Representation.  91 

Before  proceeding  further  in  map  repre- 
eograp  y       sentation,  there  should   be   a  study  of 

•u  •  i-u  i-  a  the  land  and  water  forms  in  the  home 
Neighborhood  ,  ,      ,        -, 

neighborhood.     How  shall  this  be  done? 

The  most  effective  way  is  to  visit  the  spot  under 
consideration.  No  verbal  description  can  equal  this, 
nor  convey  to  the  mind  of  the  learner  so  clear  a  con- 
cept of  the  reality.  Unfortunately,  however,  many 
teachers  find  it  very  inconvenient,  if  not  impossible, 
to  study  nature  face  to  face.  They  have  two  or 
three  classes  in  their  rooms,  and  feel  that  they  can- 
not go  out  into  the  fields  and  woods  and  down  by 
the  "babbling*  brook"  with  one  class,  and  leave  the 
others  uncared  for.  Yet,  notwithstanding  the  ob- 
stacles in  the  way,  the  earnest  teacher  will  manage 
to  take  his  pupils  where  they  can  see  the  several  ge- 
ographical forms  as  they  are  in  nature,  and  so  be 
able  later  to  form  approximately  correct  concepts 
of  like  forms  which  lie  beyond  their  field  of  observa- 
tion. He  will  leave  the  higher  classes  under  the 
care  of  the  principal  some  pleasant  afternoon,  or 
give  them  a  half  holiday;  or  possibly  he  will  take 
his  entire  school  with  him  and  manage  to  interest 
all  for  an  hour  or  more.  If  the  fates  decide  that  he 
cannot  follow  any  of  these  plans,  he  can,  and  will, 
take  his  class  on  a  picnic  excursion  some  Saturday 
afternoon.  Having  previously  selected  the  place 
with  reference  to  the  work  in  hand,  and  careful ly 
arranged  his  plans,- he  can  so  mingle  work  with  play 
that  the  work  itself  becomes  play  to  the  children. 
And  while  they  go  home  feeling  that  they  have  had 
a  pleasant  afternoon,  they  will  carry  with  them  a 
rich  store  of  geographical  concepts  to  which  the 
teacher  can  appeal  successfully  thereafter. 


92  Teaching  Geography. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


ANALYSIS   AND    SYNTHESIS. 

In  previous  chapters  attention  was  called  to  the 
importance  of  a  full  and  careful  study  of  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  home  neighborhood.  It 
„  was  shown  that  without  the  power  ac- 

Geography.  cluire(i  from  such  study  the  textbook 
will  for  a  time  have  but  little  meaning 
for  the  beginner;  while  with  this  power  he  is  pre- 
pared to  enter  at  once  upon  the  intelligent  study 
of  the  text.  He  is  able  to  change  the  symbols  into 
realities;  realities,  too,  that  are  familiar,  since  he 
has  seen  their  counterparts.  The  city  ceases  to  be 
a  speck  and  becomes  an  orderly  arrangement  of 
streets,  parks,  churches,  schools,  factories,  stores, 
residences,  etc. 

And  everywhere  are  seen  people  engaged  in  busi- 
ness, or  in  pursuit  of  pleasure.  The  oceans  and 
lakes  are  no  longer  patches  of  blue  or  green  scat- 
tered over  the  surface  of  the  maps,  but  are  large 
bodies  of  water  whose  waves  beat  upon  the  sandy 
beach  or  thunder  against  the  rocky  cliffs.  So  with 
all  other  symbols  which  on  the  map  represent  forms 
of  land  or  water;  they  are  transformed  by  the  imagi- 
nation into  the  realities  which  the}'  are  intended  to 
represent.  The  ability  to  work  this  transformation 
—  to  change  the  symbol  into  the  thing  symbolized, 
the  shadow  into  the  substance,  must  be  acquired  by 


Analysis  and  Synthesis.  93 

the  children  before  they  can  use  books  or  maps  to 
advantage.  And  the  only  way  in  which  it  can  be 
acquired  is  by  a  careful  study  of  the  home  neighbor- 
hood, which  in  reality  is  the  world  in  miniature. 

Adherence  to  scientific  methods  would  demand 
that  when  the  pupils  have  studied  all  of  the  world 
that  lies  within  their  field  of  vision,  that  is,  all  of  it 
which  they  can  see  and  examine  for  themselves, 
they  should  pass  to  the  consideration  of  the  earth 
as  a  whole.  It  is  no  more  difficult  for  them  to  see 
the  earth  as  a  unit,  through  the  globe,  than  it  is  to 

see  the  home  state,  or  even  the  countv, 
Begin  With       ,,  ,    , ,  ,.  _    ,  _.     J 

the  Earth         through  the  ordinary  flat  map.     When- 

as  a  Whole,  ever  they  undertake  the  study  of  any 
region  lying  beyond  their  field  of  vision, 
the  knowledge  they  obtain  is  mediated  knowledge, 
and  it  is  believed  that  such  knowledge  is  more  likely 
to  be  correct  when  obtained  through  the  medium  of 
the  globe  than  when  gained  through  that  of  the  flat 
map.  They  are  familiar  with  many  objects  which 
resemble  the  earth  in  shape,  but  with  none  that  re- 
semble the  county  or  state.  Consequently  they  can 
form  an  approximately  correct  mental  picture  of  the 
earth  as  a  whole  more  easily  than  they  can  of  either 
of  the  others.  It  may  be  urged  that  the  earth  is  too 
large  for  the  children  to  image  correctly.  True,  so 
it  is;  and  so  is  the  state.  The  only  question  here  is, 
in  the  imaging  of  which  can  they  approach  nearest 
the  truth? 

There  is  another  reason  for  beginning  the  study 
of  the  earth  as  a  whole  at  this  point,  and  that  is  that 
the  analytic  method  will  enable  the  pupils  to  see 
the  relation  of  their  home  to  the  world   long  before 


91  Teaching  Geography. 

they  can  perceive  it  if  they  continue  the 
R  synthetic  method.     To  work  from   the 

home  outwards  is  well,  if  not  carried  too 
far.  To  go  from  the  known  to  the  unknown  is  com- 
mendable when  confined  to  proper  limits.  These, 
like  other  general  statements,  need  modifying"  at 
times.  It  is  wicked  to  keep  children  ignorant  of  the 
relation  just  named,  until  they  can  obtain  the  knowl- 
edge by  aimlessly  groping  their  way  from  home  to 
the  confines  of  the  earth.  A  wiser  course  is  to  begin 
the  study  of  the  earth  as  a  whole  as  soon  as  the 
home  geography  is  completed,  follow  the  analytic 
plan  of  study  until  the  relation  of  the  home  to  the 
world  is  seen,  and  then  change  to  the  synthetic 
mode,  and  work  outwards.  This  will  enable  the 
learners  to  work  intelligently  and  hopefully,  as  they 
see  the  end  to  be  accomplished. 

While  the  writer  fully  believes  in  the  reasonable- 
ness of  the  course  indicated  above,  yet  in  deference 
to  the  views  of  many  thoughtful  teachers,  he  is  will- 
ing to  postpone  the  study  of  the  earth  as  a  whole 
until  the  pupils  have  learned  something  of  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  home  township,  county,  and  state.  He 
is  the  more  willing  to  do  so  as  he  is  well  aware  that 
while  they  are  acquiring  this  desirable  knowledge, 
their  intellectual  powers  are  being  so  developed  that 
when  they  do  begin  the  study  of  the  earth  as  a  whole, 
they  will  be  able  to  take  hold  of  the  work  with  a 
firmer  grip.  So  without  discussing  farther  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  the  two  modes  of  procedure,  provid- 
ing the  synthetic  is  not  followed  at  this  time  beyond 
the  study  of  the  state,  he  will  confine  himself  to  a 
brief  statement  of  what  may  be  done  along  this  line, 
and  how  it  may  be  done  to  the  best  advantage. 


Analysis  and  Synthesis.  95 

We  will  suppose  that  the  children  have  done  the 
work  indicated  in  the  preceding'  pages.  They  have 
made  as  many  excursions  for  the  purpose  of  study, 
as  the  teacher  thought  feasible,  and  have  studied  as 
much  of  the  neighborhood  as  circumstances  would 
n  in  d  f  permit.  Not  only  have  the  various 
Procedure.  forms  of  land  and  water  been  carefully 
noted,  but  the  agencies  by  which  they 
were  fashioned  have  also  received  attention.  And 
they  have  been  observed  busily  at  work  changing 
and  modifying  present  forms. 

The  plants  and  animals  have  been  studied  with 
a  view  of  determining  their  habits  and  usefulness. 
The  leading  occupations  carried  on  in  the  neigh- 
borhood were  investigated.  The  convenience  and 
usefulness  of  railroads,  good  wagon  roads,  the  post- 
office,  telegraph,  telephone,  etc.,  were  dwelt  upon, 
and  now  the  children  have  reached  the  point  where 
they  must  enter  upon  the  study  of  regions  which  lie 
beyond  the  limits  of  their  geographical  experience. 
There  is  no  better  way  of  doing  so  than  for  the 
teacher  to  lead  them  on  imaginary  excursions.  In 
the  study  of  the  township  and  county  no  books  will 
be  necessary.  The  teacher  has  probably  seen  the 
localities  to  which  he  is  going  to  lead  his  pupils, 
and  is  therefore  able  to  describe  them  both  accu- 
rately and  vividly.  If  so,  the  children  will  get  more 
from  his  description  than  they  would  from  a  book? 
as  the  spoken  word  is  more  familiar  to  them  than 
the  written  one.  Furthermore,  back  of  the  spoken 
word  is  a  living  soul,  while  back  of  the  written  one 
is  only  dead  matter. 


96  Teaching  Geography. 

At  this  stage  of  the  work,  and  not  be- 
M  fore,  it  will  be  necessary  to  begin  using 

maps.  The  study  of  maps  should  have 
no  place  in  the  lower  grades,  but  the  making  o 
maps  should  receive  considerable  attention.  If 
young  children  are  set  to  studying  and  copying 
maps,  there  is  danger  that  the  maps  will  be  the  end 
and  aim  of  their  study.  Instead  of  proving  a  help 
the  maps  will  be  a  hindrance,  as  they  will  come  be- 
tween the  children  and  the  facts  to  be  mastered  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  hide  them  from  view. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  the  pupils  have  studied 
a  locality,  they  should  be  called  upon  to  make  a  map 
of  it,  as  soon  thereafter  as  is  convenient.  Knowing 
that  they  will  be  called  upon  to  do  so,  causes  them 
to  observe  forms  and  relative  positions  more  closely 
than  they  otherwise  would.  They  know  that  the 
marks  or  symbols  which  they  place  on  the  map  stand- 
for  things  wiiich  actually  exist,  things  wThich  they 
have  seen.  The  true  relation  of  the  map  to  what 
it  represents  will  be  understood.  So  that  when, 
later  on,  it  becomes  necessary  for  the  pupils  to 
study  purchased  maps,  they  will  know  that  the 
symbols  found  on  these,  too,  stand  for  real  things. 
The  movement  should  be  from  the  object  to  the 
symbol,  not  from  the  symbol  to  the  object. 

In  teaching  the  geography  of  the  town- 
Township  ,  .  ,  ,, 

.  „       .        ship,    count v,    and     state,    wall    maps 
and  County.  L  '  -  '  l 

which  show  only  such  places  as  the 
children  are  to  learn,  are  to  be  preferred.  Maps  of 
the  county  and  state  are  easily  obtained,  but  it  may 
be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  place  on  the  black- 
board or  on  good  strong  paper  a  map  of  the  town- 


Analysis  and  Synthesis.  97 

ship.  By  the  aid  of  such  a  map  and  of  vivid  de- 
scriptions he  can  lead  his  pupils  to  see  places  and 
thing's  approximately  as  he  sees  them. 

The  localities  studied  on  these  imaginary  excur- 
sions will  at  first  be  comparatively  near  home,  and 
will  therefore  have  many  features  that  closely  re- 
semble those  found  in  the  places  actually  visited, 
and  so  will  be  readily  imaged  by  the  pupils.  The 
readiness  and  accuracy  acquired  in  imaging  regions 
near  home  will  enable  them  later  to  form  correct 
mental  pictures  or  images  of  more  remote  ones.  The 
growth  of  the  image  making  power  will  keep  pace 
with  the  demands  upon  it.  And  when  the  study  of 
the  state  has  been  reached,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
pupils  have  acquired  such  a  stock  of  geographical 
ideas,  and  such  power  of  assorting  and  forming 
these  ideas  into  new  combinations,  that  with  the  aid 
of  the  text-book  and  map  they  will  be  able  to  enter 
upon  the  work  intelligently. 

In  teaching  the  geography  of  the  state, 
the  teacher  should  not  attempt  toomuch. 
This  caution  is  in  order  at  all  stages  of  the  chil- 
dren's progress,  but  more  especially  at  this  early 
stage.  Some  teachers  act  as  if  they  believed  that  the 
more  places  their  pupils  can  name  and  locate,  the 
greater  is  their  knowledge  of  geography.  This  is 
not  necessarily  true.  They  may  know  many  places. 
and  yet  know  but  little  of  the  essentials  of  geog- 
raphy. What  should  receive  most  attention  are  the 
underlying  principles  of  the  science,  the  foundation 
facts  on  which  it  rests.  These,  with  the  relations 
which  bind  them  into  an  orderly  and  philosophic 
whole,should  be  uppermost  in  the  teacher's  thoughts 


98  Teaching  Geography. 

For  while  it  is  not  advisable  to  dwell  on  the  phi- 
losophy of  geography  with  these  beginners,  the 
simple  facts  which  are  taught  them  should  be  so  pre- 
sented that  they  may  be  able  to  see  later  on  that 
there  is  a  philosophy  running  through  and  permeat- 
ing the  study. 

The  surface  of  the  state  should  be  taught 
The 

,        .  clearly  and  with  a  fair  degree  of  full- 

Imaginary  J  & 

Excursion.  ness.  The  imaginary  excursion  enables 
,  the  teacher  to  do  this  in  a  very  pleas- 
ing manner.  He  pilots  his  pupils  up  or  down  the 
river,  as  he  chooses,  ascends  its  main  tributaries, 
carefully  noticing  the  position  and  direction  of  the 
divides  that  separate  the  basin  of  this  river  from 
those  of  the  neighboring  streams.  While  doing  so, 
he  calls  attention  to  the  length  and  width  of  the  river- 
basin,  the  side  of  the  river  on  which  the  greater  part 
of  it  lies,  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  nature  of 
the  crops.  If  there  is  a  large  city  on  the  river,  he 
points  out  the  relation  of  its  location  and  growth  to 
the  products  of  the  surrounding  region,  agricultural, 
mineral,  etc.  It  may  be  that  the  growth,  or  even 
the  very  existence  of  the  city  is  due  to  the  falls  near 
by,  affording  it  great  manufacturing  facilities  which 
are  utilized  in  converting  the  forests  on  the  hillside 
and  the  minerals  in  the  earth  into  useful  articles. 

Or  possibly  the  city  is  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
and  has  commerce  for  its  leading  business.  If  so,  its 
importance  as  a  receiving  and  distributing  center 
for  the  country  back  of  it  is  noted.  In  every  in- 
stance the  relation  of  the  city  to  its  surroundings  is 
pointed  out,  as  relation  is  the  life  principle  of  geog- 
raphy. 


Analysis  and  Synthesis.  99 

By  the  time  the  teacher  has  led  his  pupils  over 
the  principal  river-basins  of  the  state  in  the  manner 
indicated,  they  will  know  of  its  surface,  drainage, 
climate,  crops,  minerals,  manufactures,  commerce, 
and  the  location  of  the  more  important  cities.  Not 
many  cities  should  be  taken;  eight  or  ten  is  a  suffi- 
cient number,  but  those  should  be  studied  quite  fully, 
considering  the  advancement  of  the  children. 

If  the  teacher  is  thoughtful  and  has  carefully 
planned  his  work,  his  pupils,  in  accompanying  him 
on  these  imaginary  excursions,  will  not  only  learn 
the  facts  just  named,  but  they  will  also  learn  what 
part  of  the  state  is  wooded  and  what  part  prairie. 
They  will  locate  the  principal  forests,  recognize  the 
most  valuable  trees,  and  know  for  what  they  are 
chiefly  used.  They  will  learn  of  the  wild  animals 
found  in  the  state  and  wThere  most  of  them  are  found, 
and  wTill  be  able  to  tell  in  which  parts  the  most  do. 
mestic  animals  are  reared,  and  the  kind.  But  better 
than  all  the  rest,  they  will  know  much  about  the 
people,  both  in  city  and  country,  their  occupations, 
homes,  schools,  and  general  intelligence. 

Railroads  are  at  present  the  principal  routes  of 
inland  commerce,  consequently  a  few  of  the  more 
important  ones  should  be  studied.  This  can  be  done 
to  advantage  by  going  on  imaginary  railroad  exclu- 
sions from  home  to  the  chief  cities  already  learned, 
as  far  as  circumstances  will  permit,  and  from  one- 
large  city  to  another.  The  canals  can  be  studied  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  railroads.  If  the  teacher 
has  this  part  of  the  work  in  mind  when  he  selects 
the  cities  to  be  learned,  the  learning  of  the  canals 
and  railroads  will  require  but  little  time  and  labor, 


100  Teaching  Geography. 

and  they  will  serve  as  bonds  to  hold  the  cities  in 
their  proper  place  in  the  mental  picture  which  the 
pupils  are  forming". 

The  Earth  as  Having"  learned  the  main  facts  concern- 
a  Whole.  [ng  their  home  township,  county,  and 
state,  the  pupils  should  be  led  to  the  consideration 
of  the  earth  as  a  whole.  This  topic  has  been  post- 
poned thus  far  out  of  deference  to  the  views  of  some 
good  teachers  and,  perhaps,  the  wishes  of  the  par- 
ents, but  it  cannot  be  put  off  longer  without  loss  to 
the  learners. 

The  first  fact  to  be  noted  should  be  the  shape. 
To  teach  this  well  a  globe  is  essential,  the  larger 
the  better.  By  having  two  or  three  of  different 
sizes  to  look  at  and  examine,  the  children  will  be 
saved  from  thinking  that  any  one  of  them  represents 
the  earth  in  bulk.  To  give  even  an  approximately 
correct  notion  of  the  size  of  the  earth  requires  great 
skill,  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  But  the  greater 
the  difficulty,  the  greater  should  be  his  ambition  to 
succeed,  providing  the  topic  is  a  proper  one.  Per- 
haps the  best  he  can  do  is  to  get  his  pupils  to  see  that 
it  is  very,  very  large;  so  large  that  it  would  take  a 
railroad  train  six  weeks  to  travel  around  it,  if  it 
were  to  go  as  fast  as  the  one  on  the  home  road  does 
and  make  no  stops  for  any  purpose  whatever. 

Other  illustrations  will  suggest  themselves  and 
should  be  used  freely,  providing  they  are  illustra- 
tions that  illustrate.  The  point  to  be  emphasized, 
however,  is  the  shape,  and  the  globe  shows  this,  as 
the  oblateness  of  the  earth  is  too  insignificant  to  be 
introduced  at  this  time. 


Analysis  and  Synthesis.  101 

The   teacher  may  feel    that   he    ought 

u   c    *■.      j  next  to  teacli  the  rotation  of  the  earth 
the  Earth  and 

their  Conse-  on  ^s  axis>  and  the  relation  of  the  move- 
quences.  ment  to  the  phenomena  of  day  and  night. 

This  is  not  a  difficulty  topic.  It  can  be 
taught  successfully,  if  the  children  know  the  shape 
of  the  earth,  and  understand  that  the  sun  does  not 
revolve  around  it  daily.  The  revolution  of  the  earth 
around  the  sun  can  be  made  sufficiently  clear  to  pay 
for  the  necessary  effort.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  if 
the  results  of  the  revolution  can  be  made  clear. 
Granted  that  it  is  desirable  the  pupils  should  under- 
stand the  cause  of  the  change  of  seasons,  but  can 
these  immature  minds  be  made  to  understand  it, 
even  by  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  teacher?  The  in- 
tellectual ability  of  the  pupils  to  deal  with  the  sub- 
ject must  not  be  ignored.  It  is  worthy  of  even 
greater  consideration  than  is  the  knowledge  to  be 
imparted.  The  teacher  can  well  afford  to  defer  a 
full  treatment  of  this  topic  until  his  pupils  are  pre- 
pared for  it,  being  satisfied  now  with  a  general  out- 
line. This  course  may  bring  upon  him  the  censure 
of  some  thoughtless  critic  into  whose  theories  of 
education  the  capacity  of  the  learners  does  not  enter 
as  a  factor.  But  censure  is  harmless,  if  as  in  this 
case,  it  is  not  merited. 

The  part  of  the  globe  that  represents 
Comparison     jand  silouid  be  compared  in   size  with 

of  Land  and      .,  ,    ,,  .  .  rn, 

...  .      0  the   part  that  represents  water.      The 

Water  Sur-  L  l 

faces.  two  great  masses  of  land  should  be  com- 

pared in  regard  to  shape,  size,  and  di- 
rection of  greatest  length.  The  oceans  should  be 
named,   and   located   with    reference    to    the    great 


102  Teaching  Geography. 

masses  of  land.     It  will  be  well  to  have  a  wall  map 

of  the  world  hung-  where  the  children  can  see  it,  so 

they  can  compare  the  shape  and  size  of  the  bodies 

of  land  and  water  on  the  globe  with  the  shape  and 

size  of  the  same  fyodies  on  the  map.     Comparison 

should  have  a  prominent  place  in  the  teaching  of 

geography. 

The  terms,  eastern  hemisphere,  western 

Comparison     hemisphere,  new  world,  and  old  world, 

.  .    should  be    introduced,  and  the  reason 

spheres  and  ' 

Continents.  f°r  the  names  given.  When  this  is  done 
the  two  great  masses  of  land  may  be 
divided  into  continents.  The  number  of  continents 
depends  on  the  definition  of  the  term.  It  is  conven- 
ient to  regard  them  as  six,  including  Australia. 
They  can  be  arranged  in  three  pairs,  each  pair  con- 
sisting of  a  northern  and  a  southern  continent.  A 
pupil  of  average  ability  will  see  by  the  map  that 
several  of  the  continents  resemble  each  other  in 
many  respects  while  they  differ  in  others.  All  dif- 
ferences and  resemblances  should  be  carefully  noted. 

The  continents  may  also  be  arranged  into  groups 
of  threes — three  in  the  northern  hemisphere  and 
three  in  the  southern,  the  two  groups  being  al- 
most separated  by  a  great  depression  which  is  filled 
with  water.  In  each  group  the  continents  are  wide 
at  the  north  and  grow  narrow  towards  the  south. 

This  comparison  of  the  continents  is  a  fruitful 
theme.  By  it  the  pupils  will  be  able  to  fix  the  rela- 
tive position,  shape,  comparative  size,  character  of 
the  coastline,  and  many  other  facts  which  it  is  es- 
sential they  should  know.  The  teacher  should  be  in 
no  hurry  to  leave  it;  but  when  he  does  leave  it,  it 
should  be  to  study  the  home  continent  more  fully. 


Analysis  and  Synthesis.  103 

The  facts  already  learned  about  the 
Reviews 

home  continent  should  be  reviewed  be- 
fore teaching"  new  ones.  In  fact  there  should  be 
brief  reviews  daily.  Two  or  three  judicious  ques- 
tions each  day  will*  keep  the  matter  stirred  up  in 
the  consciousness  of  the  children.  This  is  impor- 
tant. It  is  difficult  to  see  how  there  can  be  any  ad- 
vancement in  true  learning  without  this.  With  this 
knowledge  as  a  working  capital  the  pupils  are  pre- 
pared to  note  the  irregularities  of  the  coastline, 
name  and  locate  the  principal  projections  and  in- 
dentations, the  great  mountain  systems,  plateaus 
and  plains,  and  the  chief  lake  and  river  systems. 
Only  a  few  of  the  more  important  facts  should  be 
considered;  enough  to  enable  the  children  to  form 
a  mental  picture  showing  the  principal  features  in 
their  proper  relations. 

The  teacher  may  be  tempted  to  tarry  here  and 
teach  much  about  climate,  vegetation,  animals,  min- 
erals, and  the  people  with  their  various  industries 
and  interests.  The  wisdom  of  doing  so  is  doubtful, 
to  say  the  least.  The  purpose  now  should  be  to  get 
back  to  the  home,  marking  the  road  so  plainly,  that 
when  the  pupils  start  out  on  their  conquest  of  the 
world,  they  will  know  the  route  to  be  traveled,  and 
see  the  relation  of  each  day's  journey  to  the  start- 
ing point,  and  to  the  entire  work  to  be  accom- 
plished. 

On  the  home  continent  are  situated  sev- 

.,     ..  eral   countries.     Their    boundaries   are 

Continent. 

determined  by  men,  and  are  arbitrarily 

fixed, often  without  reference  to  natural  limitations. 

Consequently    the    political   and   natural    divisions 


104  Teaching  Geography. 

rarely  coincide.  So  the  best  we  can  now  do  is  to 
teach  the  names  and  positions  of  the  countries  with 
a  few  general  facts  about  each;  the  number  of  facts 
to  be  determined  by  the  relative  importance  of  the 
countries.  The  home  country  should  of  course  re- 
ceive most  attention.  Even  this  should  not  be 
studied  too  much  in  detail.  Its  position  on  the  con- 
tinent, its  shape,  size,  climate,  and  in  a  general  way 
its  varied  productions  should  be  noted.  The  natural 
features  should  be  reviewed.  And  it  may  be  well 
to  teach  a  few  of  the  principal  cities  and  railroads. 
The  position  of  the  home  state  must  be  fixed,  and 
its  relation  to  the  country  as  a  whole  noticed. 
When  this  is  done,  the  pupils  will  be  prepared  to 
move  intelligently  "from  the  home  outwards;"  to  go 
"from  the  known  to  the  unknown;"  and  there  is  no 
better  or  more  interesting  way  of  doing  so  than  the 
imaginary  excursion. 


s 


Value  of  Maps  and  Pictures.  105 


CHAPTER  XII. 


VALUE  OF  MAPS   AND   PICTURES    IN  TEACHING  GEOG- 
RAPHY. 

Next  to  the  object  itself,  its  picture  ex- 
Pictures. 

cites  the  greatest  interest,  and  conveys 

to  the  mind  the  clearest  and  most  accurate  impres- 
sions. Besides  appealing  to  the  eye,  which  is  valu- 
able, if  it  is  a  good  picture  it  will  also  awaken  the 
innate  love  of  beauty  with  which  we  must  credit  the 
average  child.  The  wealth  of  illustrations  found  in 
our  text-books  shows  that  pictures  are  regarded  by 
teachers,  generally,  as  important  aids  in  education. 
Were  it  not  so,  publishers  would  not  gotothe  trouble 
and  expense  of  inserting  them,  as  they  are  not  in  the 
habit  of  expending  their  money  upon  that  which  is 
naught.  The  illustrations  in  our  leading  geographies 
are  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and,  in  the  main,  truthfully 
represent  the  objects  for  which  they  stand.  Yet 
there  are  teachers  who  either  entirely  ignore  these 
pictures,  or  refer  to  them  as  pictures,  simply,  with- 
out connecting  them  with  the  objects.  This  is  a  mis- 
fortune, as  the  illustrations  are  sometimes  as  valu- 
able as  the  text. 

Geographical  pictures  are  abundant,  and  can  be 
obtainedat  little  expense.  The  teacher  should  have 
on  his  desk,  or  on  the  reference  table,  copies  of  sev- 
eral geographies.  This  will  give  him  quite  a  variety 
pf  pictures.     In  addition,  he  can  obtain  beautifully 


106  Teaching  Geography. 

and  profusely  illustrated  pamphlets  from  the  agents 
of  the  principal  railroads  by  sending-  a  few  postage 
stamps.  Several  such  lie  on  my  table  as  I  am  writ- 
ing. In  one,  issued  by  the  New  York  Central  and 
Hudson  River  railroad,  I  find  a  view  of  Niagara  Falls 
a  glance  at  which  will  give  a  child  more  knowledge 
than  will  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  spent  in  studying  a 
verbal  description.  Here,  also,  are  views  of  the 
Hudson  river  at  several  points,  showing  the  Palis- 
ades, the  Highlands,  and  several  other  famous  lo- 
calities. The  valley  of  the  Mohawk,  the  Erie  canal, 
and  the  lakes  of  northwestern  New  York  offered 
many  beautiful  scenes,  which  the  artist  has  kindly 
placed  here  for  my  benefit.  The  West,  not  to  be 
out-done,  has  sent  me  "Indian  Land  and  Wonder 
Land,''  all  the  way  from  St.  Paul,  for  six  cents.  An 
artist  friend  of  mine  tells  me  that  the  illustrations 
in  this  volume  are  the  finest  he  has  ever  seen  in  such 
books;  iu  fact,  that  they  are  gems  of  art.  The  first 
one  to  which  I  turn  satisfies  me  that  my  friend's 
judgment  is  good.  It  is  a  picture  of  Lake  Chelan, 
in  Washington.  On  one  side  of  the  lake  are  seen  a 
few  huts,  several  fields  and  a  number  of  men  busily 
at  work,  showing  that  settlers  have  been  attracted 
by  the  beauty  of  the  location  and  the  fertility  of  the 
soil.  On  the  other  side  are  the  mountains,  whose 
shadows  are  thrown  far  out  upon  the  water.  This 
is  but  one  of  many  scenes  depicted  by  the  artist. 
The  Bad  Lands  of  North  Dakota,  the  Yellowstone 
Park  and  Alaska,  are  represented  by  barren  wastes, 
towering  mountains,  placid  lakes,  steaming  geysers 
and  foaming  cataracts;  all  of  which  can  be  made 
very  serviceable  in  the  geography  class.     Railroads 


Value  of  Maps  and  Pictures.  107 

are  not  the  only  corporations  that  advertise  their 
business  in  such  artistic  forms;  publishers  and  man- 
ufacturers also  advertise  by  means  of  illustrated 
pamphlets,  which  they  are  glad  to  send  to  teachers 
who  ask  for  them  and  are  willing  to  pay  the  postage. 
Stereoscopic  views  can  also  be  used  to  advantage. 
They  are  not  very  expensive,  do  not  occupy  much 
space,  and  can  easily  be  carried  from  place  to  place. 
This  last  is  quite  an  item  in  their  favor,  as  the 
teacher's  health  may  cause  him  frequently  to  move 
from  district  to  district.     I  use  this  class  of  pictures 

somewhat  freely  in  my  teaching,  and  I 
y.  should  use  them  more  freely  still  were 

I  teaching  boys  and  girls.  My  experi- 
ence leads  me  to  value  them  highly.  I  find  that 
if  a  pupil  has  looked  at  a  picture  of  the  locality, 
or  object,  he  will  get  much  more  from  reading  a 
description  of  it,  or  from  listening  to  a  description 
by  the  teacher,  than  he  will  if  he  has  not  seen  the 
picture.  He  sees  the  object  through  the  picture, 
and  so  has  something  tangible  to  which  to  apply  the 
words.     This  is  true  of  any  good  picture. 

Pictures  not  only  aid  the  pupils  in  getting  clear 
geographical  notions  of  those  parts  of  the  world 
which  they  have  not  seen;  they  are  of  great  assist- 
ance to  the  teacher  as  well.  They  inspire  him  to 
paint  vivid  word-pictures  of  objects  and  localities, 
a  gift  which  every  teacher  should  diligently  seek. 
A  bird's-eye  view  of  the  basin  of  Lake  Champlain, 
bordered  on  the  east  and  west  by  mountains,  whose 
ramifications  extend  well  down  toward  the  lake, 
diversifying  the  surface  with  sunny  slope  and  shady 
vale,   traversed  by  sparkling  streams,   and  dotted 


108  Teaching  Geography. 

with  cities  and  villages,  many  of  which  are  mirrored 
in  the  clear  waters  of  the  lake,  while  others  are  sur- 
rounded by  well-kept  farms,  whose  sleek  herds  and 
tine-wooled  flocks  show  the  thrift  of  the  owners,  will 
materially  aid  the  teacher  in  describing"  any  lake 
basin.  In  like  manner  a  good  picture  of  a  river  basin 
will  help  in  describing'  other  river  basins;  and  a  good 
representation  of  a  woodland  scene  will  assist  in 
picturing  other  woodland  scenes,  etc.  I  place  such 
high  estimate  on  this  power  of  word- 

r,     ..  picturing  that  I  have  no  hesitation  in 

Reading.  *■  & 

saying:  Blessed  are  the  pupils  whose 
teacher  has  this  gift,  provided  it  is  seasoned  with 
good  sense;  otherwise  he  may  be  airing  his  ability 
in  season  and  out  of  season,  and  the  gift  may  do 
more  harm  than  good. 

Looking  at  pictures,  however,  should  not  be  made 
the  main  purpose  of  the  recitation.  They  are  valu- 
able, simply,  as  means  to  an  end,  and  the  end  in  this 
instance  is  the  acquisition  of  geographical  knowl- 
edge. If  the  examination  of  the  pictures  is  made 
the  end,  then  the  pictures  are  hurtful,  and  will  lead 
to  dissipation  of  energy  and  waste  of  time,  as  the 
attention  of  the  pupils  is  drawn  away  from  the  geog- 
raphy, and  fixed  upon  the  pictures  as  pleasing  ob- 
jects merely.  This  will  be  especially  true  of  the 
younger  children  whose  w7ill-power  is  weak  and 
whose  craving  is  strong  for  that  which  is  pleasing. 
Hence  the  need  of  caution.  Without  its  exercise  a 
good  thing  may  be  rendered  wTorse  than  useless. 

Geography  is  not  a  study  of  words  and 

maps.     It  is  a  study  of  the   world  in 

which  we  live,  work,  and  go  to  school.     It  calls  at- 


Value  of  Maps  and  Pictures.  109 

tention  to  the  various  forms  of  land  and  water,  to 
all  forms  of  life,  but  more  especially  to  man  and  all 
that  concerns  him.  The  atmosphere  is  studied  and 
its  importance  shown.  In  the  lower  grades  these 
facts,  forms,  and  notions  are  studied  only  as  they 
exist  in  the  home  neighborhood.  Only  such  forms 
as  lie  within  his  field  of  vision  and  such  facts  as 
find  a  response  in  his  own  experience,  must  be  pre- 
sented to  the  young  learner. 

Above  the  primary  grades  the  printed  map  can 
be  made  helpful,  but  not  before.  Even  here  there  is 
danger  that  it  will  be  looked  upon  as  the  real  object 
of  study,  instead  of  being  regarded  as  a  symbol.  I 
am  satisfied  that  there  are  many  pupils  who  spend 
weeks  or  months  on  the  geography  of  North  Amer- 
ica without  once  thinking  of  the  real  continent.  Its 
great  extent,  snow-capped  mountains,  broad  pla- 
teaus, fertile  plains,  inland  seas,  majestic  rivers, 
peaceful  farms,  busy  cities,  etc.,  are  to  them  as 
though  they  did  not  exist.  Their  thoughts  are  cen- 
tered on  the  map  that  hangs  on  the  wall,  or  on  the 
smaller  one  that  is  in  their  text-book;  but  they  do 
not  appreciate  the  true  function  of  either. 

There  must  be  a  constant  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  to  get  his  pupils  to  see  that  the  map  is  a 
symbol,  and  that  its  purpose  is  to  enable  the  mind 
to  pass  over  from  the  words  to  the  forms  of  real  land 
and  water,  which  are  described  by  the  words.  When 
the  map  is  regarded  in  this  light  it  is  a  valuable 
aid  in  teaching,  as  it  suggests  a  picture,  and  geog- 
raphy may  justly  be  regarded  as  a  series  of  related 
pictures. 

All  maps  are  helpful  when  pupils  are  taught 
their  purpose,  but  the  raised  map  is  the  most  help- 


110  Teaching  Geography. 

ful.  It  excels  the  flat  map,  not  only  because  it 
shows  the  vertical  configuration,  which  the  other 
does  not,  but  because  it  shows  the  contour  even 
better,  as  it  suggests  that  it  is  determined  by  the 
character  of  the  surface.  It  is  true  that  some  ob- 
ject to  the  raised  map  because  altitudes  must  be 
exaggerated  and  out  of  all  due  proportion  to  hori- 
zontal distances,  in  order  that  the  vertical  forms 
may  be  appreciable.  Admitting  that  there  must  be 
exaggeration,  yet  is  it  not  a  fact  that  notwith- 
standing this  fault  the  raised  map  enables  the  chil- 
dren to  form  a  truer  mental  picture  of  the  surface 
than  does  the  fiat  map?  I  believe  this  to  be  true; 
consequently  I  favor  its  use,  and  urge  all  teachers 
of  geography  to  get  a  good  supply  of  the  best  raised 
maps.  With  all  their  imperfections  they  will  lead 
the  children  nearer  the  truth  than  will  the  flat 
maps;  and  the  truth  is  the  desired  goal. 

Next  in  usefulness  to  the  raised  maps  are  the 
physical  maps,  of  which  Guyot's  are  among  the  best. 
These  maps  show  different  altitudes  by  means  of 
different  colors.  They  enable  the  pupils  to  see  the 
location  and  directions  of  the  mountain  system,  the 
position  and  comparative  size  of  the  plains  and 
plateaus,  and  the  position  of  the  deserts  with  the 
reasons  therefor.  Notwithstanding  that  these  maps 
give  an  opportunity  for  using  but  one  sense  while 
the  raised  maps  invite  the  use  of  two,  yet  they  are 
desirable  helps,  and  by  an  intelligent  use  of  them 
good  results  may  be  obtained. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  spend  much  time  in  dis- 
cussing the  helpfulness  of  a  map  that  does  not  show 
relief  by  some  device.     There  are  but  few  such,  and 


Value  of  Maps  and  Pictures.  Ill 

they  are  rapidly  passing-  away;  and  let  them  go. 
May  the  school  houses  that  now  know  them,  soon 
know  them  no  more.  In  the  hands  of  skillful  teach- 
ers they  did  some  good;  when  used  by  others  they 
often  did  harm.  They  are  far  inferior  to  the  phys- 
ical maps,  yet  cost  nearly  as  much.  There  is,  there- 
fore, no  reason  other  than  the  oratory  of  the  agent 
for  buying  any  more  of  them. 

Of  all  the  devices  used  in  aiding  the 
_    .  ..  imagination  to  picture  remote  geograph- 

ical forms,  sand  modeling  is  the  most 
serviceable.  By  its  aid  forms  of  contour  and  relief 
can  be  shown  as  readily  as  by  the  raised  maps,  and 
they  can  be  altered  easily.  The  pupils  can  be  made 
to  see  the  continent,  island,  or  peninsula  growing 
under  the  hands  of  the  teacher.  This  will  be  more 
likely  to  inspire  them  to  put  forth  effort  than  will 
the  looking  at  a  map  which  is  unalterably  fashioned, 
when  it  is  brought  before  them.  By  seeing  things 
made,  children  will  learn  to  make  them  more  readily 
than  they  will  by  hearing  how  they  are  made,  as 
they  will  be  more  interested.  Here  the  various  forms 
are  fashioned  gradually  as  they  were  in  nature,  and 
the  nearer  nature  we  can  keep  the  device,  the  better. 
This  is  why  the  molded  form  suggests  the  real  land 
or  water  more  readily  than  does  the  map. 

The  sand  is  also  very  helpful  in  enabling  the  chil- 
dren to  understand  how  the  surface  of  the  earth  has 
been  changed,  and  is  constantly  being  changed  by 
the  action  of  the  air,  frost,  water,  etc.  This  cannot 
be  shown  by  the  aid  of  maps,  yet  the  learners*  at- 
tention should  be  called  to  it.  so  they  may  be  led  to 
observe  the  work  of  the  <rreat  artists  who  are  con- 


112  Teaching  Geography. 

stantly  carving-  and  chiseling",  wearing  down  the 
sharp  ridges  and  filling  up  the  unsightly  hollows 
that  mar  the  appearance  of  our  earth-home. 

Another  advantage  that  sand  modeling  has,  is 
that  it  can  be  used  in  all  the  grades  from  the  pri- 
mary to  the  high  school.  It  is  especially  valuable 
in  teaching  physical  geography;  but  as  that  is  the 
basis  and  most  important  part  of  all  geography,  it 
is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  is  taught  through- 
out the  entire  course. 

Objections  are  sometimes  made  to  sand  modeling 
because  of  the  exaggeration  necessary,  and  because 
of  the  danger  that  the  children  will  use  the  forms 
shown  in  the  sand  as  the  standards  with  which  to 
measure  like  forms  in  nature.  What  has  been  said 
in  defense  of  raised  maps  will  apply  here  equally  as 
well.  And  it  is  safe  to  say  that  no  evil  will  result 
from  the  use  of  the  sand  or  raised  maps  if  the  teacher 
exercises  due  care. 


The  Imaginary  Excursion 

and  its  Place  in  Teaching  Geography. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


A    TRIP    DOWN   THE   HUDSON  RIVER. 

To  read  a  map  correctly  is  quite  an 

Proper  achievement.     The  ability  to  do  so  is 

Interpretation  .   .,     ,     ,,      .    ,    ,;.         ,     ,     , 

f  „  a  prerequisite  to  the  intelligent  study 

of  all  regions  which  cannot  be  visited 
by  the  learner.  The  accuracy  of  the  mental  picture 
formed  depends  on  the  power  to  interpret  geograph- 
ical symbols,  and  the  value  of  the  description  is  de- 
termined by  the  character  of  the  mental  picture. 
This  is  true  in  the  stud}^  of  most  subjects,  but  more 
especially  in  that  of  geography,  history,  literature. 
and  reading.  No  matter  how  eloquent  the  descrip- 
tion, or  how  faultless  and  beautiful  the  composition, 
it  has  but  little  educative  value  unless  there  is  in 
the  mind  of  the  reciter  a  fitting  series  of  images. 
His  belief  that  this  is  so,  accounts  for  the  frequency 
with  which  the  writer  has  urged  the  importance  of 
aiding  the  children  to  make  correct  mental  pictures. 
For  while  it  is  not  all  of  geography  to  be  able  to  do 
so,  It  is  essential  to  any  marked  success  in  pursuing 
the  subject. 

The  pupils  with  whom  we  have  labored  thus  far, 
ought  to  possess  by  this  time  sufficient  power  to  in- 
terpret the  map  correctly,  and  to  appreciate  the  de- 
scription. Much  strength  was  acquired  along  these 
lines  by  accompanying  the  teacher  on  the  imaginary 
excursions  which  he  made  to  different  parts  of  the 


116  Teaching  Geography. 

home  township,  county,  and  state.     Since  then  he 

has  led  them  on  longer  trips.     Together  they  have 

.  sailed  on  longer  rivers,  climbed  higher 
Value  of  ,    .  *     ,  .   ' 

c  „..    :~  mountains,  and  traveled  over  more  ex- 
excursions.  __^ 

tensive  plateaus  They  have  witnessed 
the  buying  and  selling  which  are  constantly  taking 
place  at  the  great  centers  of  commerce,  and  have 
broadened  their  knowledge  by  tracing  the  relation 
between  the  agricultural  products  offered  for  sale, 
and  the  climatic  and  other  conditions  of  the  coun- 
tries which  produced  them. 

Manufacturing  centers  have  also  arrested  their 
attention,  and  they  have  stopped  long  enough  to 
examine  the  lines  of  goods  manufactured,  and  to  dis- 
cover, if  possible,  the  causes  which  led  to  their  being 
manufactured  at  those  particular  places.  The  loca- 
tion may  be  due  to  abundant  water  power,  nearness 
to  inexhaustible  supplies  of  fuel,  and  convenience 
to  market;  while  the  nature  of  the  goods  may  be 
conditioned  by  the  character  of  the  raw  materials 
most  accessible. 

In  the  fields  have  been  noticed  men  at  work 
planting,  cultivating,  and  harvesting.  The  manner 
of  caring  for  some  of  the  leading  crops  has  been 
noticed,  as  well  as  the  dependence  of  certain  pro- 
ducts upon  the  climate  and  soil.  On  the  higher  pla 
teaus,  where  agriculture  is  unprofitable,  cattle  and 
sheep  were  seen  in  great  numbers,  being  fattened  for 
the  market.  And  on  plain,  plateau,  and  mountain, 
men  were  observed  digging  into  the  bowels  of  the 
earth  and  bringing  forth  the  minerals  which  add  so 
much  to  the  wealth  of  the  nation.  Having  seen 
these   things   with   their  own  eyes  or  those  of  the 


A  Trip  Down  the  Hudson  River.  117 

teacher,  they  are  prepared  to  make  longer  journeys 
in  their  own  country  and  in  foreign  parts.  The  first 
lengthy  excursion  will  be  a  trip  down  the  Hudson 
river. 

The  Appalachian  mountains  are  peculiar  in  their 
formation.  In  places  they  consist  of  parallel  ranges_ 
separated  by  fertile  valleys.  In  others  they  are  wide 
plateaus,  dotted  here  and  there  by  isolated  peaks. 
While  in  still  other  places  they  form  groups  of  steep 
and  well-rounded  mountains,  in  many  of  whose  deep 
valleys  are  found  bright  and  silvery  lakes. 

The  Adirondack  mountains  constitute  one  of 
these  groups.  A  few  years  ago  they  were  but  little 
known;  now  they  are  among  the  most  popular  re- 
sorts in  America.  A  few  hours'  ride  takes  one  away 
from  the  hurry  and  bustle  and  noise  of  the  metrop- 
olis of  the  western  hemisphere  to  the  solitude  of 
the  wilderness,  where  he  will  find  strength  for  his 
tired  body  and  rest  for  his  fevTered  brain. 

Prom   out  the    heart  of  these    mountains    flows 

one  of  the  noblest  rivers  of  the  world,  the   lordly 

Hudson.     It  is  true  that  it  is  surpassed  in  length 

and  volume  by  the  Amazon,  Mississippi,  and  a  score 

of  others,  and  that  it  cannot  boast  of  the   ruined 

castles  of  robber-knights  of  the  queenly 

n.  Rhine.     Yet  it  is   doubtful   if  there   is 

River. 

anywhere  on  earth  three  hundred  and 
fifty  miles  of  river  that  surpass  the  Hudson  in  the 
grandeur  of  its  scenery,  in  the  beauty  and  pathos 
of  its  legends,  or  in  the  deeds  of  daring  and  cruelty 
that  have  taken  place  along  its  banks.  The  dusky 
beau  has  sent  his  bark  canoe  skimming  over  its 
waters  to  meet  his  peerless  one    at    the    secluded 


118  Teaching  Geography. 

trysting  place.  The  Mohawk  brave  has  noiselessly 
moved  in  the  shadow  of  its  overhanging  trees,  stalk- 
ing the  enemy  of  his  tribe,  as  the  hunter  stalks  the 
deer.  And  armies  of  freemen  have  put  to  rout  the 
hosts  of  the  oppressor  within  the  sound  of  its  rip- 
pling waters. 

Among  the  most  famous  Indian  legends 
_.  .of  the  Hudson  is  that  of  Minne-wa-wa, 

which  is  as  follows:*  "In  the  valley  of 
the  Hudson  lived  the  Mohicans,  who  were  the  direct 
descendents  of  the  Great  Spirit.  Minne-wa-wa,  the 
pleasant  voice,  was  the  mother  of  their  chief,  who 
was  called  the  Evening  Star,  and  who  had  for  his 
wife  Wa-bun  An-nung,  the  Morning  Star;  their  son 
was  named  Osseo,  Son  of  the  Evening  Star. 

"Soon  after  they  settled  in  these  pleasant  hunt- 
ing grounds,  Osseo  and  his  father,  while  chasing 
the  red  deer  among  the  blue  mountains  that  lie  to 
the  west  of  the  sparkling  river,  were  overtaken  by 
Mishe-mokwa,  the  great  naked  bear,  and  destroyed. 

"Wa-bun  An-nung  in  her  great  sorrow  wandered 
away  from  the  village  to  the  east,  and  was  taken 
by  the  Puk-wud-jin-inies,  the  little  vanishing  men 
of  the  woods  who  are  seen  as  night  approaches,  and 
suspended  in  the  eastern  sky,  where  she  became  the 
morning  star. 

"Minne-wa-wa,  bereft  of  all  kindred,  betook  her- 
self to  the  western  mountains  to  grieve  in  solitude 
near  the  spot  from  whence  her  loved  ones  had  van- 
ished. As  time,  that  great  healer  of  human  woes, 
somewhat  assuaged  her  grief,  her  heart  beat  only 
for  the  subjects  of  her  lost  son,  and  her  greatest  de- 

*Ta.ken  from   "Hudson  River  by  Daylight,"  by  permission. 


A  Trip  Doion  the  Hudson  River.  119 

sire  was  for  the  welfare  of  her  people;  and  fearing 
lest  some  others  of  the  tribe  might  be  overtaken  in 
the  darkness  by  Mishe-mokwa,  she  gave  to  the  little 
swamp-flies,  Wah-wah-tay-see,  the  wee  lamps  which 
at  night  they  flash  here  and  there  among- the  bushes, 
that  they  might  reveal  the  monster  should  he  be 
lurking  near  to  devour.  But  perceiving  that  the 
Wah-wah-tay-see  would  be  of  service  only  in  the 
damp  hollows  which  they  frequented,  and  under 
the  shadows  of  the  dense  trees  and  thick  bushes, 
she  climbed  the  mountain,  and  from  the  highest 
peak  hung  in  the  western  sky  the  crescent  bow  of 
the  lost  Evening  Star,  to  which  she  gave  light  and 
which  became  the  moon.  The  Great  Spirit,  see- 
ing that  this  was  good  for  her  people,  and  that  she 
ot  all  others  held  their  welfare  in  highest  esteem, 
changed  her  into  an  immortal  spirit  and  gave  her 
the  vast  mountain  for  a  lodge,  in  which  was  the 
great  treasury  of  storm  and  sunshine  for  the  region 
of  the  Hudson;  and  he  gave  her  also  the  dispensing  of 
them  for  all  time.  Here  she  kept  Day  and  Night 
shut  up,  letting  out  only  one  of  them  at  a  time. 
Monthly  she  came  from  her  dwelling  and  hung  the 
crescent  new  moon  in  the  western  sky,  over  the 
mountains,  and  so  placed  it  as  to  signal  to  her  peo- 
ple that  she  was  about  to  send  out  the  cooling 
showers  to  water  the  maize-fields  and  freshen  the 
springs  and  parched  herbage;  for  if  she  so  hung  it 
that  the  lower  horn  of  the  crescent  was  elevated 
sufficiently  to  hang  upon  it  the  bow  and  quiver  of 
the  hunter,  then  was  the  hunting  at  an  end  for  a 
season  and  her  people  were  to  keep  to  their  lodges 
and  wigwams. 


120  Teaching  Geography. 

"After  hanging  forth  the  signal  that  all  might 
see  it  she  would  stand  on  the  mountain  top  and  shake 
from  the  folds  of  her  mantle  the  drifting  rain-clouds, 
and  blow  them  over  the  valley  with  her  breath. 
Sometimes  she  would  weave  them  out  of  cobwebs, 
gossamer,  and  morning  dew,  and  send  them  off, 
flake  after  flake,  to  float  in  the  air  and  give  light 
summer  showers.  When  the  people  had  done  that 
which  displeased  her  she  would  brew  up  black  thun- 
der storms,  and  send  down  drenching  rains  to  swell 
the  streams  and  sweep  everything  away,  and  with 
them,  the  thunder  of  her  voice  and  the  lightning 
flashes  from  her  eyes. 

"Thus  did  Minne-wa-wa  become  the  guardian  of 
the  Mohican  people,  ever  ministering  to  their  good, 
sending  the  rain  to  moisten  the  maize  fields,  and 
water  the  hills  that  the  herbage  might  grow  and 
keep  the  game  in  abundance  for  them.  Monthly  she 
hung  up  the  new  moon,  and  as  often  cut  up  the 
old  and  scattered  the  little  pieces  throughout  the 
heavens,  and  made  of  them  the  little  stars  whose 
lamps  she  lighted  nightly." 

The  Hudson  river  rises  in  Henderson  lake  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Marcy,  the  highest  peak  of  the  Adi- 
rondacks.  Its  course  at  first  is  through  a  rough  and 
rugged  country.  It  works  its  way  through  dark  and 
cavernous  glens,  whose  beetling-  cliffs  shut  out  the 
light  of  the  sun.  Its  roar  may  be  heard  echoing 
among  the  mountains  as  it  goes  fretting  and  fuming 
through  the  rapids,  or  wrathfully  throws  itself  over 
the  rocky  precipices.  Occasionally  it  comes  to  a 
small  level  meadow  through  which  it  peacefully 
flows  singing  anthems  of  victory  over  the  difficul- 


A  Trip  Down  the  Hudson  River.  121 

ties  it  has  overcome,  and  gathering  new  strength 
for  the  obstacles  that  may  still  be  in  its  way. 

The  river  flows  nearly  south  for  quite  a  distance, 
when  it  is  compelled  by  the  hardness  of  the  rock  to 
take  a  northeasterly  course  until  it  reaches  Sandy 
Hill,  when  it  again  turns  to  the  south  and  continues 
in  that  direction  to  New  York  bay. 

Shortly  before  reaching  Sandy  Hill  the  river  is 
divided  by  a  small  rocky  island  and  dashes  over  a 
precipice  sixty-three  feet  in  height.  Both  the  island 
and  falls  are  made  famous  by  Cooper  in  his  Last  of 
the  Mohicans.  In  the  rocky  caverns  of  the  island 
Duncan  Heyward  and  his  wards,  Alice  and  Cora 
Munro,  sought  safety  from  their  savage  foes.  It 
was  here  that  Hawkeye  aud  his  two  loyal  Delawares 
fought  the  "Mingoes"  until  their  ammunition  was 
gone  and  then  plunged  beneath  the  seething  waters 
and  made  their  escape.  And  it  was  here  that  David 
Gamut,  inspired  by  the  noise  of  the  cataract,  poured 
out  his  soul  in  nasal  melody.  But  alas!  neither  the 
singing  of  David  nor  the  faithfulness  of  Duncan 
saved  the  party  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  Magua, 
the  Mingo  chief.  The  village  of  Glen's  Falls  marks 
the  spot  at  present 

With  its  escape  from  this  wild  region,  the  Hud- 
son enters  a  more  level  country  and  its  career  for 
the  rest  of  its  course  is  comparatively  peaceful.  But 
while  escaping-  the  turbulance  of  nature,  it  has  wit- 
nessed many  of  the  turmoils  of  men,  both  savage  and 
civilized.  There  is  hardly  a  foot  of  land  along  its 
banks  from  Sandy  Hill  to  New  York  bay  that  has 
not  been  fought  over  by  armed  men;  and  the  same 
may  be  said  of  its  principal  tributaries.     Hurons, 


122  Teaching  Geography. 

Mohawks,  Dutch,  English,  and  Americans  have  dyed 
the  water  with  their  blood  and  enriched  the  soil  with 
their  bodies.  The  war  whoop  of  the  Indian,  the 
slogan  of  the  Highlander,  and  the  hearty  hurrah  of 
the  English  and  Americans  have  reverberated  from 
its  cliffs;  but  heedless  of  them  all  it  has  kept  on  its 
way,  anxious  only  to  find  repose  in  the  arms  of  its 
great  mother,  the  ocean. 

The  village  of  Port  Edward  is  a  short  distance 
below  the  great  bend.  The  portage  from  here  to 
Lake  George  was  the  most  dangerous  part  of  the 
route  to  Canada.  The  village  figures  conspicuously 
in  the  story  of  Burrjoyne's  invasion. 

Bemis  Heights  stretch  along  the  west  bank  of  the 
Hudson  from  opposite  Port  Edward  to  the  Mohawk 
river.  The  altitude  of  these  heights  is  not  great  at 
any  point,  and  in  some  places  they  are  slightly  un- 
dulating plains.  Here  were  fought  two  important 
battles  of  the  Revolutionary  War.  In  one  of  them 
Benedict  Arnold  won  considerable  renown,  although 
Gates  received  the  oificial  credit.  The  last  of  these 
battles  is  vividly  portrayed  by  the  wife  of  a  Hessian 
general  who  was  in  the  service  of  the  English.  She 
gives  great  credit  to  the  Americans,  not  only  for 
their  bravery  in  battle,  but  also  for  their  chivalric 
conduct  in  not  firing  on  her  servant  maids  who  sup- 
plied the  wounded  British  with  water  from  the  river. 
The  report  is  found  in  Lossing1  s  Field- Book  of  the  Revo- 
lution, also  in  Washington  and  His  Country.  It  is  well 
worth  reading. 

About  twelve  miles  west  of  the  battle 

„  r.  field  is  the  village  of  Saratoga  Springs. 

Springs.  ^  &        x        & 

This  is  one  of  the  most  noted  watering-- 


A  Trip  Down  the  Hudson  River.  1123 

places  in  America.      In  the  fashionable  season    its 

twenty  or  more  hotels,  with  many  private  boarding 

houses,  are  filled  to  overflowing  with  those  in  quest 

of  health  and   pleasure.     Its   thirty-odd    medicinal 

spring's  are  patronized  by  those  wiio  are  sick,  or 

think  they  are;  but  for  most  the  great  attractions 

are  the  costly  equipages  aud  brilliant  costumes  that 

may  be  witnessed  on  its  streets,  and  the  gay  balls 

and  parties  that  may  be  attended  at  night.      The 

natural  scenery  in  the  immediate  vicinity  is  not  very 

attractive.     The   "sights''  have  been   produced  by 

man's  labor  and  skill.     August  is  the  best  time  to 

visit  Saratoga,  if  one  desires  to  see  it  in  its  glory. 

The  Mohaw7k  is  the  chief  tributary  of 

„.  the    Hudson.     It  flows  through  one   of 

River.  to 

the  principal  depressions  of  the  Appa- 
lachians. In  colonial  times  it  formed  one  of  the 
leading  routes  to  Canada,  there  being  but  a  short 
and  easy  portage  from  its  headwaters  to  those  of 
the  Oswego.  It  was  then  the  dark  and  bloody 
river,  being  guarded  by  the  terrible  Mohawks,  the 
bravest  and  most  bloodthirsty  of  savages.  Now  it 
is  a  helpful  servant  of  civilization.  Its  rapids  and 
falls  are  utilized  in  turning  the  wheels  of  industry; 
its  fertile  valley  is  occupied  by  peaceful  farms, 
thrifty  towns,  and  wrell-ordered  cities.  Instead  of 
the  war  whoop  of  the  savage  is  heard  the  whistle  of 
the  locomotive  and  factory,  and  the  site  of  the  "long 
house"  of  the  aborigines  is  occupied  by  the  church 
and  the  schoolhouse,  harbingers  of  good  to  man. 
And  as  if  to  seal  the  conversion  of  the  river  to  the 
service  of  humanity,  along  its  banks  extends  the 
Erie  canal,  a  messenger  of  peace  between  the  sea- 
board and  the  interior. 


124  Teaching  Geography. 

Schenectady  is  situated  on  the  Mohawk  river  and 
the  Erie  canal.  The  very  name  causes  the  student 
of  history  to  shudder  as  he  thinks  of  the  stockaded 
village,  the  faithless  sentinels,  and  the  defenceless 
inhabitants  wakened  from  their  sleep  to  see,  by  the 
light  of  their  burning"  homes,  the. ruthless  savages 
standing  over  them  brandishing  toma- 
hawks and  scalping  knives.  The  hor- 
rors of  the  flight  to  Albany  through  the  snow, 
barefoot  and  scantily  clad,  was  equaled  only  by  the 
plight  of  those  carried  captive  to  Canada.  Happily 
the  town  is  now  an  important  manufacturing  center, 
and  its  people  are  safe  from  the  perils  which  sur- 
rounded their  ancestors. 

Troy,  the  largest  manufacturing  city  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Hudson,  except  New  York,  is  situated  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  river,  on  an  alluvial  plain.  Its 
principal  manufactures  are  iron,  steel,  stoves,  rail- 
road cars,  etc.  Being  at  the  head  of  navigation, 
and  having  a  number  of  railroads,  it  is  also  largely 
engaged  in  commerce.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Rens- 
selaer Polytechnic  Institute,  and  across  the  river 
is  the  Watervliet  national  arsenal  in  which  are  made 
large  cannon.     The  tide  ascends  to  Troy. 

Albany,  on  the  west  bank,  is  the  capital  of  the 
state  of  New  York.  It  is  the  eastern  terminus  of 
the  Erie  canal,  and  is  connected  with  Lake  Cham- 
plain  by  the  Champlain  canal.  Several  lines  of 
palatial  steamboats  make  regular  trips 

any'  between  Albany  and    New    York.     In 

summer  they  are  crowded  with  pleasure  seekers 
who  never  tire  of  the  magnificent  scenery  which 
the  trip  reveals  to  them.     The  city  has  several  rail- 


A  Trip  Down  the  Hudson  River.  125 

roads  which  with  its  water  facilities  make  it  an  im- 
portant commercial  center.  It  is  also  extensively 
engaged  in  commerce. 

We  leave  the  river  for  a  time  at  Catskill 
The  Catskill    T        ,.  ,,  ,   ,       ,  ,  , 

M       .  .  Landing,  on  the  west  bank,  and  reach 

Mountains.  ts'  ' 

the  mountains  b}r  railroad.  On  arrival 
we  hasten  up  the  rocky  valley  that  we  may  witness 
Rip  Van  Winkle  assist  his  taciturn  companion  in 
carrying"  the  heavy  keg.  If  there  is  a  thunder  storm 
we  may  hear  the  noise  of  the  balls,  as  they  are  rolled 
by  the  crew  of  the  Half  Moon,  long  before  we  reach 
the  amphitheater.  A  motley  crowd  they  are  and 
freely  do  they  partake  of  the  contents  of  the  keg. 
But  having  Rip's  sad  fate  in  remembrance,  we  keep 
at  a  safe  distance  from  the  flagon.  Becoming  tired 
of  the  play  we  ascend  one  of  the  highest  peaks,  and 
sitting  by  the  side  of  Leather  Stocking, or  Hawkeye, 
as  we  called  him  elsewhere,  we  listen  to  his  marvel- 
lous tales  of  Indian  cruelty  and  the  white  man's 
cupidity. 

Leaving  the  past,  however,  and  addressing  our- 
selves to  the  present,  we  soon  realize  that  we  are  in 
a  region  rich  in  scenic  grandeur.  Mountain  peaks, 
plateaus,  and  deep-furrowed  valleys  surround  us  on 
all  sides.  Deep,  placid  lakes  mirror  the  beauty  of 
their  wooded  margins,  doubling  our  pleasure.  Brisk, 
refreshing  breezes  fan  our  brows,  and  our  ears  are 
delighted  by  the  music  of  many  streams  as  they  go 
dancing  over  their  rocky  beds  and  between  their 
grassy  banks,  breaking  out  into  a  joyful  chorus, 
loud  and  deep,  as  they  descend  to  the  plain.  The 
most  noted  is  Kaaterskill  creek  which  plunges  down 
three  hundred  feet  at  one  leap. 


126  Teaching  Geography. 

Prom  our  point  of  observation  we  can  see  the 
Adirondacks  to  the  north,  with  their  tops  reaching 
to  the  heavens.  Between  lies  the  valley  of  the 
Mohawk  in  which  the  river  appears  like  a  ribbon  of 
silver. 

Turning-  to  the  east,  the  broad  valley  of  the  Hud- 
son is  spread  out  before  us.  Cities  and  towns  dot 
the  landscape.  The  clouds  of  smoke  which  rise 
above  them  tell  of  labor,  inventive  genius,  and  proud 
achievement;  while  the  spires  that  glisten  in  the 
sunlight  reveal  their  hopes  when  life's  labor  is 
ended. 

Thrifty  and  well  kept  farms  may  be  seen  on  both 
sides  of  the  river.  The  elegant  residences  and  ca- 
pacious barns  show  that  the  tillers  of  the  soil  are 
well  repaid  for  their  labor.  Groves  of  hemlock, 
maple,  and  oak  give  variety  to  the  scene;  and  the 
herds  of  cattle,  droves  of  horses,  and  flocks  of  sheep 
in  the  carefully  fenced  pastures  add  life  and  mo- 
tion. The  Hudson  itself  flows  by  at  a  distance  of 
seven  miles  from  the  base  of  the  mountains,  carry- 
ing on  its  bosom  the  commerce  of  an  empire.  All 
sorts  of  craft,  from  the  plebeian  canal  boat  to  the 
aristocratic  steamer  equaling  in  its  appointments 
the  palace  of  a  king,  ceaselessly  plow  its  waters; 
while  on  its  banks  may  still  be  seen  many  of  the 
stately  mansions  built  by  the  Dutch  Patroons,  al- 
ternating with  the  modern  villas  of  merchant  princes. 
For  ninety  miles  up  and  down  the  valley  and  east 
to  the  Green  mountains  and  Berkshire  hills,  this  en- 
chanting panorama  is  unfolded  to  our  gaze.  On  the 
south  it  is  limited  by  the  Highlands. 


A  Trip  Doivn  the  Hudson  River.  127 

The  view  to  the  west  is  of  a  more  quiet  nature, 
yet  it  is  not  without  beauty.  The  broad,  fertile  val- 
leys of  the  Delaware  and  Susquehanna  rivers  appear 
in  the  distance.  Signs  of  comfort,  if  not  of  opulence, 
are  seen  in  the  substantial  homes  that  greet  our 
eyes.  Brawling-  cataracts  and  rocky  crags  with 
their  weird  and  picturesque  scenery  are  absent,  but 
tokens  of  peace  and  plenty  are  everywhere  visible. 

Returning  to  the  Hudson,  we  soon  reach  King- 
ston, on  the  west  bank.  This  is  the  eastern  termi- 
nus of  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  canal,  which  is 
used  chiefly  in  conveying"  coal  from  the  anthracite 
regions  of  Pennsylvania  to  New  York  city. 

A  short  distance  farther  on  is  found  Poughkeepsie, 
an  important  manufacturing  center.  It  is  especially 
noted,  however,  for  its  educational  institutions,  of 
which  Vassar  College,  for  young  ladies,  is  the  prin- 
cipal one.  The  beauty  and  boldness  of  the  great 
cantilever  bridge  spanning  the  river  at  this  point  is 
worthy  of  our  admiration. 

In  passing  by  Newburg,  we  are  pleased  with  its 
very  attractive  appearance.  It  was  here  that  Wash- 
ington, at  the  close  of  the  war,  by  his  energy  and 
prudence  saved  his  country  from  a  possible  revolt 
of  the  army.  Across  the  river  is  Pishkill,  not  far 
from  which  were  the  haunts  of  Cooper's  "Spy." 

As  we  approach  the  Highlands,  we  no- 

...  .  .      .  tice  that  the  river  is  narrowing  and  the 

Highlands.  h 

velocity  of  its  current  increasing.  We 
enter  the  enchanted  region  between  two  high  rocky 
piles  that  stand  as  grim  sentinels  guarding  the 
passage.     The  one  on   the  west   is  Storm  King.     It 


128  Teaching  Geography. 

looks  solemnly  across  at  Breakneck  to  see  if  it  is 
attending  to  its  duty. 

We  have  no  trouble  in  convincing'  these  guards 
that  we  are  friends,  who  simply  wish  to  view  the 
treasures  entrusted  to  their  custody.  The  scenery 
on  both  sides  of  the  river  is  beautiful,  grand,  ma- 
jestic. Rock  rises  above  rock,  cliff  above  cliff,  and 
mountain  above  mountain.  While  opening  back 
from  the  river  are  many  narrow  valleys  which  serve 
to  make  the  massiveness  of  the  mountains  all  the 
more  impressive.  Several  of  the  mountains  look 
upon  the  river  with  lowering  brows,  as  if  displeased 
with  it  for  bringing  strangers  to  gaze  upon  their 
secrets.  Some  of  them  are  even  so  angry  that  they 
run  out  into  the  water  determined  to  stop  its  pass- 
age. It  moves  on,  however,  and  moving  with  it,  we 
arrive  at  West  Point. 

A  visit  to  the  "Point"  is  apt  to  recall  many  events 
in  the  history  of  the  nation.  It  was  here  that  Ar- 
nold, the  traitor,  tried  to  undo  all  that  Arnold,  the 

patriot,  had  done.  The  names  of  Wash- 
West   Point.  ,  TZ  ,  1      T        r  4.4. 

ington,  Kosciusko,  and  .Lafayette  are 
associated  with  the  place,  and  are  held  in  precious 
remembrance  by  the  young  men  who  are  here  being 
educated  to  follow  in  their  footsteps. 

The  military  academy  occupies  a  plateau  one 
hundred  and  eighty-eight  feet  above  the  river.  It 
is  generally  conceded  to  be  one  of  the  best  schools 
of  its  kind  in  the  wTorld.  The  careers  of  Grant,  Sher- 
man, Sheridan,  and  of  many  other  great  captains, 
bear  witness  to  the  excellence  of  the  training  re- 
ceived here. 

We  stay  at  West  Point  long  enough  to  visit  the 
cadet  barracks,  the  library,  the  ridingschool,  battle 


A  Trij)  Down  the  Hudson  River.  129 

monument,  and  "Lover's  Walk. "  We  see  the  cadets 
on  dress  parade,  and  visit  mess  hall,  later,  when 
they  are  partaking-  of  their  evening-  meal.  They  are 
a  bright,  vigorous,  and  jolly  body  of  young  men, 
and  they  take  pains  to  make  the  visitor's  stay  among 
them  as  pleasant  as  possible.  Unfortunately  our 
time  was  limited,  so  we  had  to  say  good-bye  to  these 
future  heroes,  and  continue  on  our  way. 

We  leave  the  Highlands,  as  we  entered  them,  be- 
tween two  peaks;  "for  the  Dunderburg  and  Manito 
stand  guard  at  the  south,  rearing  their  heads  sky- 
ward more  than  one  thousand  feet. "  In  passing 
Stony  Point,  we  think  of  General  Wayne  and  of  his 
heroic  capture  of  the  fort. 

It  is  not  difficult  at  this  juncture  to  turn  our 
thoughts  from  war  to  peace,  as  the  river  spreads 
out  into  the  broad,  quiet  expanse  known  generally 
as  Haverstraw  bay,  but  whose  lower  part  is  locally 
designated,  the  Tappan  Zee.  The  shores  consist 
no  longer  of  mountain  walls,  but  in  many  places, 
the  land  slopes  down  to  the  water's  edge.  And 
while  there  are  occasional  cliffs,  the  prevailing  char- 
acteristic of  the  scenery  is  its  tranquility.  Every 
point  of  vantage  is  occupied  by  a  beautiful  villa 
whose  surroundings  are  as  pleasing  as  money  and 
skill  can  make  them.  Farms  stretch  back  from  the 
river  on  either  side,  but  the  growing  crops  do  not  in- 
dicate fertility  of  soil. 

The  Croton  river  comes  in  from  the  east.  From 
the  upper  valley  of  this  stream  New  York  city  is 
supplied  with  water  by  means  of  an  aqueduct  forty 
miles  long. 

Tappan  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson.  It 
was  here  that  Major  Andre,  the  British  spy,  was 


130  Teaching  Geograghy. 

tried  by  court  martial  and  executed.     He  was  cap- 
tured east  of  the  river,  just  across  from  the  village. 

Tarrytown  is  the  next  point  at  which  we  stop, 
and  here  we  disembark  for  the  present.  The  town 
"is  delightfully  situated  on  an  elevated  plateau, 
overlooking  the  wide  expanse  of  the  Tappan  Zee 
and  the  surrounding  country  for  many  miles. "  We 
do  not  land,  however,  simply  to  see  the  town;  we 
must  visit  ''Sleepy  Hollow,"  which  is  quite  near. 
The  brook-still  glides  through  the  little  valley  mur- 
muring as  it  did  when  Ichabod  Crane, 
„    -  stretched  upon  its  bank,  had  such  ec- 

static visions  of  the  wealth  of  Baltus 
Van  Tassel  and  of  the  plumpness  of  blooming  Kat- 
rina,  all  of  which  he  hoped  would  soon  be  his. 

We  wander  in  the  churchyard  looking  for  the 
grave  of  the  unfortunate  Hessian  but  we  find  it  not. 
We  are  shown  the  very  spot  by  the  brook  where 
was  found  Ichabod's  hat  and  the  pumpkin.  Who 
can  tell  how  the  pumpkin  came  to  be  in  that  partic- 
ular place  on  that  awful  occasion?  As  we  are  trying 
to  solve  the  mystery,  we  can  almost  hear  Gunpowder 
tearing  down  the  road,  closely  followed  by  the  head- 
less horseman.  That  pumpkin,  so  harmless,  seem- 
ingly, brought  ruin  and  destruction  upon  the  hopes 
of  the  schoolmaster.  We  can  readily  imagine  the 
feelings  of  Brom  Bones  when  he  heard  of  his  rival's 
mishap. 

Returning  to  the  river  once  more,  we  soon  come 
in  sight  of  "Sunnyside"  cottage,  the  home  of  Wash- 
ington Irving.  Remembering  the  kind,  genial  na- 
ture of  him  who  made  it  famous,  and  acknowledging 


A  Trip  Down  the  Hudson  River.  131 

our  indebtedness  to  him  for  many  an  hour  of  pleas- 
ure and  profit,  we  reverently  salute  it,  and  look 
upon  it  with  uncovered  heads  as  it  is  rapidly  hidden 
from  sight  by  a  dense  growth  of  trees  and  shrubbery. 

The  Palisades  is  a  name  applied  to  a  long  per- 
pendicular wall  that  extends  for  twenty  miles  along 
the  west  side  of  the  Hudson,  terminating  on  the 
south  at  Fort  Lee.  They  form  the  river  edge  of  a 
plateau  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  wide,  and 
from  one  hundred  to  five  hundred  feet  high.  In 
many  places  the  face  of  the  cliff  presents  a  columnar 
appearance.  The  opposite,  low,  verdant  shore  af- 
fords a  varied  and  charming  picture  from  the  Palis- 
ades; while  to  the  south  the  eye  reaches  to  the 
metropolis  and  its  crowded  bay. 

The  towns  and  villages  on  the  east  bank  follow 
each  other  in  rapid  succession.  No  sooner  do  we 
pass  one  than  we  come  in  sight  of  another.  We  do 
not  land  at  any  of  them,  as  we  desire  to  reach  the 
great  city  by  daylight,  and  the  sun  will  soon  sink 
below  the  horizon.  Spuyten  Duyvel  creek  is  passed. 
The  river  is  well  nigh  covered  wTith  boats  of  all  de- 
scriptions. We  carefully  pick  our  way  among  them, 
and  soon  are  in  front  of  Riverside  park.  Here  we 
rest  on  our  oars  a  short  time  and  think  of  the  hero 
whose  tomb  is  in  plain  view.  The  spot  is  a  lovely 
one.  The  view  up  and  down  the  river  cannot  be 
surpassed.  Long  may  it  be  before  the  American 
passer-by  forgets  to  look  with  reverence  upon  the 
last  resting  place  of  the  immortal  Grant. 

We  land  at  the  22nd  Street  pier,  and  are  driven 
to  our  hotel,  feeling  well  repaid  for  our  trip  down 
the  Hudson. 


132  Teaching  Geography. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


A    TRIP    DOWN    THE    RHINE    RIVER. 

The  drainage  of  at  least  150  glaciers  unite  to 
form  the  headwaters  of  the  Rhine  river.  The  prin- 
cipal stream  rises  near  Mt.  St.  Gothard  in  an  icy 
cave,  amidst  a  mass  of  rocks.  It  flows  to  the  north- 
east for  some  distance,  between  frowning"  walls  and 
in  dark  gorges,  and  then  forces  its  way  northwrard 
through  several  mountain  ranges,  until  it  reaches 
the  peaceful  waters  of  Lake  Constance.  The  de- 
scent is  so  rapid  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course  that 
we  can  not  use  our  canoe.  We  must  carry  it  the 
best  we  can,  for  were  we  to  launch  it,  it  would  soon 

be  dashed  to  pieces  in  the  rapids  through 
„.  .  which  the  water  rushes,  swirling  and 

foaming.  If  we  look  up  the  high,  nar- 
row valleys  that  open  out  on  either  side,  we  shall 
see  small  huts  built  under  the  shelter  of  the  cliffs. 
These  are  occupied  by  hardy  mountaineers  who 
derive  much  of  their  livelihood  from  their  small 
flocks  of  goats.  Every  patch  of  grass  is  utilized. 
In  some  instances  the  herdsman  may  be  seen  carry- 
ing the  goats  on  his  back  to  some  little  grassy 
plateau  which  they  can  not  reach  otherwise.  Farther 
down  the  valley  the  mountains  recede  from  the 
river,  and  cattle  are  seen  grazing  along  its  banks. 
Small  villages  appear,  whose  inhabitants  cultivate 
a  few  of  the  hardier  grains  and  vegetables.  The 
houses  are  small,  rudely  built,  and  scantily  fur- 
nished.    Yet  the  people  are  happy,  if  we  may  judge 


A  Trip  Down  the  Rhine  River.  133 

by  the   songs  and  shouts  of  merriment  which  we 
hear  so  frequently. 

For  some  distance  before  reaching  Lake 
op  '  Constance  the  river  is  on  the  boundary 
between  Austria  and  Switzerland,  and  flows  through 
a  great  alluvial  plain  which  is  supposed  to  be  a 
filled-up  lake  basin.  The  Rhine  is  now  a  well-be- 
haved river,  and  is  navigable  for  small  boats  and 
rafts.  We  embark  in  our  canoe,  and  as  we  are  borne 
along  by  the  current  we  notice  thrifty  towns,  care- 
fully tilled  fields,  and  rich  meadow  lands.  The  farms 
are  small,  and  so  the  tillers  are  able  to  live  in  ham- 
lets, or  small  villages.  Isolated  farm  houses  are 
rare.  A  village  consists  of  a  row  of  one-story  houses 
on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  road.  It  is  rarely  that 
one  of  them  has  more  than  one  room,  although  a  few 
of  the  more  pretentious  have  two.  But  whether  one 
room  or  two,  they  usually  shelter  the  domestic  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  their  owners.  The  farming  imple- 
ments are  very  primitive.  The  spade,  the  hoe.  the 
sickle, the  scythe,  andthehand-rakeare  still  the  main 
reliance.  The  horse  and  ox  do  but  little  of  the  work; 
woman  is  the  more  common  beast  of  burden.  She 
carries  the  fertilizer  from  before  the  house  and 
spreads  it  on  the  land,  often  with  her  hands.  In 
the  autumn  she  carries  the  hay  and  grain  from  the 
field  and  stores  them  away  in  the  rude  loft  over- 
head, or  stacks  them  nearby.  Her  husband,  brother, 
or  employer  may  help  her  get  the  burden  on  her 
back,  but  he  will  not  carry  it,  as  he  considers  it  un- 
manly to  do  so.  Everywhere  in  Europe  the  lot  of 
the  peasant  woman  is  a  hard  one.  Her  labors  are 
many  and  arduous,  and  her  joys  are  few. 


134  Teaching  Geography. 

Austria,    Germany,    and     Switzerland 

n      .  border  on  Lake  Constance.     The  moun- 

Constance. 

tains  in  many  places  come  close  to  the 
lake,  and  their  shadows  are  cast  upon  its  waters  by 
the  setting-  sun.  Quaint-looking  towns,  surrounded 
by  large  apple  orchards,  dot  its  shores.  Their  nar- 
row, crooked  streets,  peculiar  architecture,  and 
"mild  flavor  of  decay''  attract  our  attention,  and 
lead  us  to  land  at  one  of  them.  We  are  cordially 
welcomed  by  guides,  hotel-keepers,  merchants,  and 
others  who  hope  to  derive  profit  from  our  presence. 
After  rambling  through  a  few  of  the  principal 
streets,  and  purchasing  a  few  souvenirs  of  our  visit, 
we  again  embark  and  float  lazily  down  the  lake. 
The  famous  old  city  of  Constance  soon  appears  in 
sight,  and  we  stop  long  enough  to  admire  its  pictur- 
esque architecture,  and  magnificent  cathedral,  and 
to  observe  that  the  country  around  it  is  devoted 
largely  to  market  gardening,  producing  such  fruits 
and  vegetables  as  are  produced  in  Illinois. 

Prom  Lake  Constance  the  river  flows 
The 

.      „.  nearlv  west  to  Schaffhausen,  where  "it 

Aar  River.  -  ' 

is  precipitated  over  a  ledge  of  rock,  in 
three  leaps,  fifty  or  sixty  feet  in  height,"  and  then 
moves  on  calmly  and  quietly  amid  green  woods,  and 
in  sight  of  many  villages.  We  notice  where  the  Aar 
river  comes  in,  and  wish  we  had  time  to  ascend  its 
waters,  view  its  tributary  lakes,  and  climb  some  of 
the  mountains  which  look  down  upon  it  in  solemn 
grandeur.  We  must  be  content,  however,  with  re- 
calling what  the  geographies  say  about  it.  From 
them  we  learn  that  the  Aar  rises  near  Mt.  St.  Goth- 
ard,  flows  northwest  for  about  half  its  course,  and 


A  Trip  Down  the  Rhine  River.  135 

is  then  turned  to  the  northeast  by  the  Jura  moun- 
tains. Prom  the  west  it  receives  the  waters  of  Lake 
Neufchatel,  on  which  is  a  city  of  the  same  name; 
and  from  the  east  come  in  the  waters  of  lakes  Zurich 
and  Lucerne.  These  lakes,  with  many  others,  are 
visited  every  year  by  thousands  of  tourists  who  are 
charmed  with  the  scenery  of  Switzerland.  Even  the 
barren  and  frowning"  mountains,  with  their  dark  de- 
files and  forbidding-  chasms,  are  a  source  of  revenue 
to  the  inhabitants.  The  income  thus  derived,  added 
to  the  scant  returns  from  their  flocks  and  fields, 
from  wood  carving,  and  the  manufactures  of  cotton, 
silk,  tobacco,  watches,  and  musical  instruments, 
enables  them  to  live  in  comparative  comfort.  Berne, 
the  capital,  is  on  the  Aar,  while  Lucerne  and  Zurich 
are  on  lakes  of  the  same  name. 

On  returning  to  the  Rhine,  we  continue  our  west- 
erly course  until  we  reach  Basle,  just  as  the  river  is 
about  to  quit  the  boundary  between  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  and  turn  to  the  north.  The  city  is  sit- 
uated upon  a  terrace  at  the  great  elbow  of  the  Rhine 
and  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  cotton,  silk, 
tobacco,  chemical  products,  and  ribbons.  It  is  the 
leading  commercial  center  of  the  country,  its  posi- 
tion with  regard  to  Prance  and  Germany  insuring  it 
a  large  trade.  Indications  of  peace  and  prosperity 
are  visible  on  every  hand. 

As  we  descend  the  river  from  Basle  we 
The  Middle  ii.11 

~.  .  are  passing  nearly  through  the  center 

Rhine.  r      L 

of  a  great  valley  once  occupied,  it  is  be- 
lieved, by  an  inland  lake.  Looking  to  the  west 
across  Alsace^  we  see  the  Vosges  mountains  forming 
the  rim  of  the  valley  in  that  direction;  on  the  east 


136  Teaching  Geography. 

the  Black  Forest  mountains  form  the  rim.  The  land 
near  the  river  is  low  and  flat,  but  farther  back  the 
surface  is  undulating",  being"  influenced  by  ramifica- 
tions from  the  mountains.  We  can  see  that  it  is 
carefully  tilled.  On  the  lowland  near  the  river, 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  tobacco,  hops,  and  the  com- 
mon fruits  and  vegetables  are  cultivated  and  yield 
abundantly,  as  the  soil  is  enriched  with  manures  and 
commercial  fertilizers.  The  foothills  are  devoted  to 
the  culture  of  the  vine,  and  so  are  the  slopes  of  the 
mountains,  wherever  they  can  be  terraced.  We  no- 
tice the  general  absence  of  fences,  and  on  inquiring, 
learn  that  the  land  is  too  valuable  to  be  wasted  on 
fences  or  hedges,  as  boundary  stones  answer  the 
purpose  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  the  people. 

Many  hamlets  and  villages  are  seen.  They  are 
occupied  almost  entirely  by  the  tillers  of  the  soil, 
and  have  no  commerce  or  manufacturers.  These  in- 
dustries are  confined  to  the  cities  and  towns.  In 
some  places  the  peasants  are  at  work  near  enough 
to  the  river  for  us  to  notice  their  dress.  Many  of 
both  sexes  are  barefooted;  others  wear  wooden  shoes 
and  a  very  few,  leather  ones.  Some  of  the  men 
wear  trousers,  but  many  may  be  seen  with  knee 
breeches.  The  women  wear  a  loose  jacket  or  waist 
over  very  short  skirts,  and  thick  woolen  stockings, 
provided  they  wear  shoes.  If  they  go  without,  they 
wear  soleless  stockings.  The  costumes  usually 
change  with  the  locality,  each  duchy  or  province 
having  a  costume  peculiar  to  itself. 

The  first  city  of  importance  at  which  we  arrive 
is  Rtrasburg,  the  capital  of  Alsace,  situated  a  short 
distance  from  the  river  on  a  small  tributary.      The 


A  Trip  Down  the  Rhine  River.  137 

industrial  importance  of  this  city  is  over-shadowed 
by  its  military  renown.  It  is  encircled  by  a  net- 
work of  fortifications,  and  each  year 
urg.  adds  to  their  strength.  Our  interest 
centers  in  the  famous  cathedral,  with  its  tower  and 
wonderful  clock.  Farther  down,  Mannheim  appears 
at  the  junction  of  the  Neckar  river  with  the  Rhine. 
It  is  a  busy  commercial  hive,  and  standing,  as  it  does, 
at  the  head  of  navigation  for  the  larger  class  of  river 
boats,  its  harbor  is  at  all  times  crowded  with  vessels. 
On  the  Neckar,  about  twelve  from  Mannheim,  is 
Heidelberg  which  claims  to  be  the  most  beautiful 
town  of  all  Germany.  It  is  noted  for  its  delightful 
surroundings,  its  old  castle,  and  its  university. 
Could  we  ascend  the  Neckar,  we  should  find  its 
source  in  the  Black  Forest  mountains,  and  might 
be  able  to  see  the  charcoal  burners  at  their  work. 
Descending  the  Rhine  from  Mannheim,  we  soon 
arrive  at  the  old  city  of  Worms,  now  back  quite  a 
distance  from  the  river  and  noted  in  history  as  the 
place  where  Martin  Luther  appeared  before  the  im- 
perial diet  to  answer  for  his  heresy.  The  Main 
river  comes  in  on  the  right  where  the  Rhine  makes  a 
sudden  bend  to  the  west.  On  it  is  Frankfort,  about 
twenty  miles  from  its  mouth.  This  city  is  "one  of 
the  great  money  marts  of  Europe,"  being  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Rothschilds.  To  scholars  it  is  of  in- 
terest chiefly  as  being  the  birthplace  of  Goothe. 
Opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Main  is  Mayence,  strongly 
fortified  and  defending  one  of  the  most  important 
passes  over  the  Rhine.  The  bakeries  in  this  city 
are  said  to  be  on  a  scale  sufficient  to  supply  the 
daily  wants  of  500,000  men.     Its  principal  trade  is 


138  Teaching  Geography. 

in  wine,  grain,  and  wood.  As  we  pass  by  the  city 
we  are  reminded  that  here  was  born  Gutenberg-,  the 
inventor  of  printing1,  and  that  here  dwelt  the  hard- 
hearted Bishop  Hatto  who  was  punished  in  the 
'  'Mouse  Tower''  for  his  cruelty.  The  island  on  which 
stands  the  famous  tower  is  near  Bingen.  In  justice 
to  the  memory  of  the  bishop  let  us  hasten  to  say  for 
aught  that  is  known  he  was  a  good  man,  and  was 
not  eaten  up  by  rats  and  mice. 

"I  saw  the  blue  Rhine  sweep  along, — I  heard,  or  seemed  to 
hear, 

The  German  songs  we  used  to  sing  in  chorus  sweet  and  clear; 

And  down  the  pleasant  river,  and  up  the  slanting  hill, 

The  echoing  chorus  sounded  through  the  evening  calm 
and  still; 

And  her  glad  blue  eyes  were  on  me,  as  we  passed  with 
friendly  talk, 

Down  many  a  path  beloved  of  yore,  and  well -remem- 
bered walk! 

And  her  little  hand  lay  lightly,  confidingly  in  mine, — 

But  we  meet  no  more  at  Bingen, — loved  Bingen  on  the 
Rhine." 

The  village  of  Bingen  stands  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river,  and  the  hillsides  back 
of  it  are  still  covered  with  vineyards  as  in  the  day 
when  the  dying  soldier  spoke  of  it  so  fondly.  Here 
the  river  turns  to  the  north,  and  forces  its  way 
through  the  mountains.  Prom  Bingen  to  Coblentz 
the  scenery  is  well-nigh  beyond  description.  "The 
rock-walls  of  the  river;  the  continuous  villages,  the 
quaint  churches  amid  vineyards  and  cherry  orch- 
ards, the  mossy  meadows  about  the  mountains,  the 
white-kerchiefed  villagers,  present  so  many  varied 
and  delightful  objects,  that  the  eye  feasts  on  beauty, 


A  Trip  Down  the  Rhine  River.  139 

and  wonders  expectantly  at  what  the  next  turn  of 

the  river  will  reveal."    The  banks  are  lined  with 

castles,  villages,  and  ruins.     In  times  past  "every 

hill  had  its  castle,  and  every  crag  its  gray  tower." 

Each   old  castle   has  its    legends   of   robbery  and 

rapine.    River,  shop,  and  farm  were  the  prey  of  the 

robber-knights   of   the    middle    ages.     Now   all    is 

changed.   The  knight  is  gone,  the  castle  is  in  ruins, 

and  German  industry  is  protected  by  the  strong  arm 

of  the  law.     The  memories  of  knights  and  castles 

remain  only  as  a  source  of  inspiration  to  the  poet 

and  the  story-teller. 

The  most  famous  legend  of  the  Rhine  is 
The  Lorelei 

that  of  the  Lorelei,  "the  fairest  of  the 

fair,"  who  sat  on  a  bold  promontory  and  by  her 
magic  music  lured  sailors  to  destruction  in  the  rapids 
at  the  foot  of  the  precipice.  This  interesting  spot  is 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  and  about  midway  be- 
tween Bingen  and  Coblentz.  As  we  pass  by  we 
listen  for  the  echo  of  the  cries  of  her  victims,  but  it 
comes  not,  although  it  was  said  to  be  repeated  fif- 
teen times.  Instead  we  hear  the  songs  of  the  rafts- 
men as  they  bend  to  their  long,  sweeping  oars;  for 
enormous  rafts  form  one  of  the  sights  of  this  classic 
river.  We  pass  many  of  them  on  their  way  to  the 
manufacturing  districts.  The  logs  are  cut  farther 
up  the  mountains,  and  floated  down  the  mountain 
streams  to  the  Rhine  where  they  are  fastened  to- 
gether. Each  raft  is  a  floating  village.  On  it  are 
erected  rows  of  huts  in  which  the  two  or  three  hun- 
dred persons  on  board  eat  and  sleep.  In  addition, 
it  often  carries  poultry,  sheep,  and  a  few  cows,  to 
furnish  the  people  with  a  part  of  their  food. 


140  Teaching  Geography. 

Coblentz  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Mo- 
selle and  Rhine.  It  is  surrounded  by  sterile,  thinly- 
peopled  hills,  and  possesses  few  resources  of  wealth. 
On  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Rhine  is  the  strong- 
fortress  of  Ehrenbreitstein,  which  we  are  not  per- 
mitted to  enter.  The  military  character  of  Coblentz 
overshadowsand  cripples  its  industrial  development, 
and  there  is  but  little  in  the  city  that  we  care  to  see. 
The  sources  of  the  Moselle  are  in  the 
Vosg-es  mountains,  and  considerable  of 
its  course  is  in  Prance.  On  it  is  the  strongly  forti- 
fied city  of  Metz,  which  is  now  one  of  Germany's 
strong  military  out-posts. 

From  Coblentz  the  Rhine  flows  for  about  ten  miles 
through  a  narrow  plain  which  is  semi-circled  by 
mountains.  It  then  enters  a  second  defile  which  is 
less  wild  than  that  of  Bingen.  The  Seven  Moun- 
tains are  on  the  right.  Their  sides  slope  gradually 
to  the  river,  and  are  covered  with  vineyards,  hop- 
yards,  and  apple  and  cherry  orchards.  Drachenfels, 
ten  miles  southeast  of  Bonn,  is  the  most  famous  of 
the  Seven  Mountains. 

"The  castled  crag-  of  Drachenfels 
Frowns  o'er  the  wide  and  winding  Rhine, 
Whose  breast  of  waters  broadly  swells 
Between  the  banks  which  bear  the  vine." 

We  have  passed  through  the  middle  Rhine,  the 
Rhine  of  legend  and  song,  and  soon  reach  Bonn 
on  the  outskirts  of  the  great  alluvial  plain  of  Ger- 
many. It  marks  the  northern  limit  of  the  vine,  and 
is  noted  for  its  university  and  for  the  statue  of 
Beethoven,  who  was  a  native  of  the  place. 

Cologne  is  the  next  city  of  importance. 

It  is  the  largest  city  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 


A  Trip  Down  the  Rhine  River.  141 

and  has  an  extensive  commerce  both  by  river  and 
rail.  We  pay  but  little  attention  to  its  manufacture 
of  eau  tie  Cologne,  as  probably  more  of  the  ''genuine 
article' 'is  manufactured  in  Chicago  than  in  Cologne. 
But  we  visit  its  great  cathedral  and  admire  its  beauty. 
We  are  shown  the  skulls  of  the  three  wise  men  of  the 
East,  who  came  to  visit  the  Savior.  The  sexton  is 
so  sure  that  these  are  the  wise'  Asiatic  skulls,  or 
rather  the  skulls  of  the  wise  Asiatics,  that  we  ex- 
press no  doubt  as  to  the  truthfulness  of  his  story. 
It  is  well  that  we  do  not,  as  a  greater  surprise  is 
awaiting  us.  In  Saint  Ursula's  church  we  are  shown 
not  only  the  skulls  but  also  the  rest  of  the  bones  of 
the  11,000  virgins  who  were  slaughtered  here  by  the 
Huns  on  their  return  from  Rome.  We  pay  the  sex- 
ton his  fee,  feeling  that  he  has  earned  it. 

Leaving  the  presence  of  the  dead  we  saunter 
back  to  the  hotel  and  order  dinner.  It  is  served  to 
us  in  a  pleasant  garden  by  the  side  of  the  river. 
Here  we  find  a  number  of  people  eating,  drinking, 
smoking,  and  chatting,  each  enjoying  himself  in  the 
manner  which  best  suits  his  taste.  This  decidedly 
German  scene,  supplemented  by  the  swiftly  flowing 
river  with  its  steamers  puffing  hither  and  thither, 
and  boats  and  barges  passing  to  and  fro,  awakens 
pleasanter  thoughts  than  did  the  bony  fragments  of 
wise  men  and  virgins. 

After  dinner  we  travel  by  railroad  to  Aachen 
(Aix-la-Chapelle),  which  is  nearly  due  west  from  Co- 
logne, and  close  to  the  Belgian  frontier. 
Aix-la= 
ch      ..  The  hot,  sulphur  springs  of  this  place 

so  pleased  Charlemagne  that  he  made  it 
the  capital  of  his  empire.  His  marble  palace  has 
disappeared,  but  the  chapel  in  which  he  worshiped, 


142  Teaching  Geography. 

and  in  which  he  was  buried  still  exists  as  a  part  of 
the  cathedral.  The  rheumatic  and  the  gouty  visit 
the  springs  in  large  numbers  annually,  but  the  pros- 
perity of  the  city  is  due  mainly  to  its  coal,  lead, 
and  zinc  mines,  and  to  its  manufacture  of  woolen 
cloth,  shawls,  silks,  leather,  etc.  Having  visited 
the  places  of  interest  around  the  springs,  we  hasten 
back  to  the  river,  and  again  embark  in  our  canoe. 

From  Cologne  to  the  North  Sea,  the 
The  Lower 

R..  Rhine  passes  through  a  low,  level  coun- 

try, and  the  current  becomes  more  and 
more  sluggish.  For  the  rest  of  its  course  in  Ger- 
many, the  scenery  is  uninteresting  to  the  pleasure 
seeker;  but  to  those  who  delight  in  the  prosperity 
of  the  people,  there  is  much  to  please.  Well-tilled 
fields,  and  sleek  herds,  are  seen  in  all  directions, 
while  at  every  bend  in  the  river  there  is  a  thrifty 
town,  which  is  a  commercial  center  for  the  country 
back  of  it.  Coal  and  iron  are  found  in  abundance, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  furnaces,  rolling  mills,  cot- 
ton factories,  silk  factories,  etc.,  are  in  nearly  every 
town.  Perhaps,  the  town  in  which  governments  are 
most  interested  is  Essen,  northeast  of  Dusseldorf. 
Here  are  manufactured  the  great  Krupp  guns.  The 
guns,  however,  form  but  a  small  part  of  the  products 
of  Krupp's  extensive  establishment,  which  employs 
20,000  men. 

"We  now  enter  Holland,  and  the  Rhine  soon  sepa- 
rates into  several  sluggish  channels,  which  find 
their  way  between  strong  embankments  to  the  North 
Sea.  Following  the  usual  custom  of  tourists,  we 
spend  no  time  in  describing  the  Dutch  Rhine,  but 
proceed  to  Amsterdam,  from  which  we  take  steamer 
to  New  York,  and  from  there  hasten  to  our  homes. 


A   Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  143 


CHAPTER  XV. 


A   TRIP   TO    CEYLON    AND    INDIA. 

On  the  morning  of  October  3,  18 — ,  we  came  in 
sight  of  the  island  of  Ceylon.  The  voyage  from 
New  York  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal 
was  a  prosperous  one.  The  first  three 
days  we  spent  in  our  state  room,  without  any  desire 
to  see  or  to  be  seen.  What  took  place  there  it  is  not 
necessary  to  relate  farther  than  that  Neptune  was  in- 
exorable. On  the  afternoon  of  the  fifth  day  we  were 
able  to  go  on  deck  and  enjoy  the  congratulations  of 
our  friends,  and  by  the  eighth  day  we  felt  that  we 
were  able-bodied  seamen. 

We  had  read  about  Ceylon,  its  flora  and  fauna, 
its  people  with  their  customs  and  costumes,  and 
were  as  we  believed  fairly  well  prepared  to  appre- 
ciate the  beauty  of  the  island, — and  it  is  very  beau- 
tiful. As  we  sailed  south  along  the  western  coast, 
our  expectations  were  more  than  realized.  The 
south  and  west  coasts  are  low  and  fringed  with  the 
cocoanut  tree,  which  grows  down  on  the  water's 
edge.  This  tree  is  as  valuable  to  the  Cingalese  as 
the  reindeer  is  to  the  people  of  Lapland.  It  fur- 
nishes them  with  food,  drink,  clothing,  and  houses, 
and  enters  largely  into  their  few  simple  arts  and 
manufactures. 

The  east  coast  of  the  island  is  high  and  precip- 
itous, and  lacks  the  rich  verdue  of  the  south  and 


144  Teaching  Geography. 

west.  It  has  no  good  harbor.  Indeed  there  is  no 
good  natural  harbor  on  the  island.  Point  de  Galle 
to  which  our  ship  is  bound,  is  the  principal  stopping 
place  for  foreign  vessels;*  but  its  harbor  is  neither 
safe  nor  commodious.  The  British  government  is 
planning  to  build  artificial  harbors  on  both  east  and 
west  coasts. 

The  anchor  is  dropped  some  distance  from  the 
shore  and  the  Rosalind  is  soon  surrounded  by 
swarms  of  nondescript  little  crafts  whose  dusky  oc- 
cupants by  shouts  and  gestures  make  known  their 
willingness  to  serve  us — for  a  consideration.  The 
captain  tells  us  that  we  shall  have  time  to  land  and 
learn  considerable  about  the  island,  while  he  is  un- 
loading a  part  of  his  cargo  and  taking  on  a  large 
quantity  of  coffee  and  timber  for  Calcutta.  So  we 
enter  one  of  the  small  boats  and  are  soon  safely 
landed.  We  hasten  to  the  residence  of  the  Ameri- 
can consul,  who  kindly  interests  himself  in  our  be- 
half, and  provides  us  with  six  coolies  who  are  to  act 
as  guides,  and  carry  such  supplies  as  we  shall  need. 
They  soon  appear,  prepared  for  the  journey,  but  to 
our  disgust  our  official  friend  has  hired  six  women 
instead  of  six  men,  as  we  directed.  We  objected  to 
his  choice,  but  he  told  us  plainly  that  we  must  take 
these  or  go  without  any.  After  enjoying  our  look 
of  dismay  for  a  short  time,  he  laughed  heartily  and 
made  some  remark  about  the  emerald  hue  of  Ireland, 
but  we  could  not  see  that  the  vegetation  of  Ireland 
had  any  bearing  on  the  case  in  hand.  The  consul  at 
length  assured  us  that  these  were  all  men,  and  there 
was  not  a  woman  among   them.     He    frankly  ad- 

♦Colombo  on  the  west  coast  is  now  the  capital  and  principal  seaport 


A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  145 

mitted  that  our  mistake  was  a  natural  one,  as  the 
men  and  women  are  about  of  the  same  size,  and  dress 
alike.  The  principal  garment,  and  often  the  only  one, 
is  a  long",  loose  gown.  And  as  both  sexes  wear  their 
hair  long,  the  men  doing  theirs  up  with  combs,  for- 
eigners on  their  first  visit  usually  mistake  the  men 
for  the  women. 

Our  visit  to  the  interior,  brief  as  it  necessarily 
was,  proved  a  profitable  one.  The  island  is  quite 
mountainous  in  the  south,  while  in  the  north  it  is 
level  or  undulating.  Lying  so  near  the  equator,  and 
being  well  watered,  Ceylon  is  covered  with  a  rich 
growth  of  vegetation.  The  cocoanut  palm,  already 
mentioned,  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  trees,  but 
large  quantities  of  ebony,  satinwood,  and  tamarind 
are  exported  annually.  Plantations  of  nutmeg  trees 
are  carefully  cultivated.  The  tree  is  about  as  large 
as  a  medium-sized  apple  tree.  The  cinnamon  tree 
also  flourishes  here,  as  does  the  beech-like  tree  that 
bears  the  bread-fruit.  The  fruit  does  not  grow 
among  the  branches,  but  out  of  the  side  of  the  trunk. 
Coffee  is  cultivated  extensively,  but  rice  is  the  prin- 
cipal agricultural  product  and  the  staple  food  of  the 
people.  Millet,  sugarcane,  tea,  pepper,  pineapples, 
and  tobacco  are  also  produced  and  exported  in  con- 
siderable quantities 

The  natives  live  in  villages  which  are  over-shad- 
owed by  luxuriant  woods.  Their  houses  are  con- 
structed mainly  of  light  bamboo  poles,  and  roofed 
with  the  leaves  of  the  palm.  Each  is  surrounded 
by  a  small  garden  fenced  in  by  palm  leaves,  or  by 
hedges  of  flowers.  Flowers  are  found  growing  in 
great    profusion   everywhere   and    at   all    seasons. 


146  Teaching  Geography. 

Wherever  we  go  they  greet  us  with  their  beauty  and 
fragrance.  In  religion,  nearly  all  of  the  people  are 
Buddhists.  Their  temples  are  usually  built  on  high, 
picturesque  situations,  and  surrounded  by  pleasant 
grounds.  The  priests  reside  in.  the  temples,  where 
they  instruct  the  youth  in  the  mysteries  of  their  re- 
ligion. They  are  celibates  and  mendicants,  and 
every  morning  some  of  them  may  be  seen  going  to 
the  village  to  receive  offerings  of  rice,  spices,  etc. 

A  few  precious  stones  are  found  in  some  districts, 
but  none  of  any  considerable  value.  We  were  told 
by  our  coolies  that  plumbago,  quicksilver,  and  iron 
exist  in  great  quantities.  This  may  be  so.  Our  de- 
sire to  see  as  much  of  the  island  as  possible  kept  us 
from  investigating  the  geological  formation  very 
closely,  and  we  saw  no  indications  of  any  of  these 
minerals.  The  pearl  fisheries,  mainly  on  the  west 
coast,  are  very  valuable. 

We  saw  no  large  animals  on  our  journey,  but  we 
were  told  that  the  elephant,  bear,  panther,  and  buf- 
falo are  found  among  the  mountains.  The  buffalo 
is  tamed  by  the  people  and  used  in  plowing  their 
land.  Monkeys  were  seen  frequently  and  in  large 
troops.  They  were  not  glad  to  see  us.  They  ex- 
pressed their  feelings  in  language  more  forcible 
than  phonetic,  and  emphasized  their  remarks  by 
dropping  sticks  and  nuts  from  the  treetops  upon 
our  heads. 

All  birds  that  Ave  saw  had  very  gay  plumage, 
but  we  did  not  hear  one  sing  in  all  the  time  we  were 
on  the  island.  Poisonous  snakes  are  numerous,  the 
principal  one  being  the  "anaconda,"  twenty  or  thirty 
feet  lon<f.     Crocodiles  inhabit  the  rivers  and  lakes, 


A   Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  147 

and  are  sometimes  found  in  the  artificial  reservoirs 
in  which  are  stored  the  surplus  waters  of  the  rainy 
seasons,  of  which  there  are  two.  The  joyous,  per- 
sistent mosquito  impressed  us  most  deeply  of  all  the 
animals  of  Ceylon.  Its  affability  and  industry  will 
not  soon  be  forgotten. 

The  time  which  our  captain  had  fixed  for  his  de- 
parture from  Point  de  Galle  being  near  at  hand,  we 
returned  to  the  coast.  On  the  way  we  crossed  sev- 
eral rivers  and  traveled  along  the  margins  of  two 
lakes.  Both  lakes  and  rivers  are  small,  and  are  not 
navigable  for  any  but  small  boats.  Bidding  our 
friend,  the  consul,  good-bye,  we  hastened  on  board 
our  ship,  and  are  now  rounding  the  southern  point 
of  Ceylon,  bound  for  Calcutta. 

Our  vessel  stopped  next  at  Pondicherry, 
to  put  off  some  wines  and  hardware,  but 
we  did  not  land.  The  city,  with  112  square  miles  of 
territory,  belongs  to  the  French.  It  serves  as  a 
coaling  station  and  as  a  depot  of  supplies  for  their 
ships  in  this  quarter  of  the  globe.  At  Madras  there 
is  a  good  artificial  harbor  constructed  by  the  Indian 
government.  We  landed  here  and  tried  to  see  as 
much  of  the  city  as  possible  while  the  Rosalind  was 
unloading  some  of  her  cargo. 

We  found  little  to  interest  us,  although  the  van 
ity  of  the  natives  was  somewhat  amusing.     They 
claim  to  be  superior  in  many  respects  to  the  people 
of  other  parts  of  the  country.     And  as  others  will 
not  admit  the  claim,  the  inhabitants  of  this  black', 

andnot-overly-clean  city  seem  to  regard 
Madras.  .,         n    ,      ,  ,  ... 

it  a  duty  to  impress  strangers  with  a 

sense  "of  their  superiority.     We  were  duly  impressed, 


148  Teaching  Geography. 

and  returned  to  the  harbor  where  for  about  an  hour 

we  watched  the  native  boys  sailing  their  boats,  or, 

perhaps  more  properly  speaking",  their  rafts.     Each 

raft  consists  of  three  logs  about  ten  feet  long-,  and 

tied  together  with  cocoanut  strings.     We  expected 

every  moment  to  see  some  of  them  dashed  to  pieces 

by  the  heavy  surf  that  prevailed  outside  the  storm 

wall,  but  we  were  happily  disappointed.    The  same 

good  angels  who  watch  over  the  destinies  of  boys 

in  America  and  Europe  were  evidently  caring  for 

the  "brownies''  of  Madras.     The  principal  exports 

are  coffee,  cotton,   sugar,    grain,  indigo,  and  other 

dyes.     Nearly  all  kinds  of  European  manufactures 

are  imported. 

After  a  pleasant  voyage  along  the  south- 

„.  eastern  coast  of  India,  with  the  Eastern 

River.  ' 

Ghauts  in  sight  most  of  the  time,  we 
entered  the  Hoogly  river.  This  is  the  western 
mouth  of  the  Ganges  and  the  most  direct  water-way 
to  Calcutta.  East  of  it  is  the  great  delta  formed  by 
the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra  rivers.  It  is  cut  up 
into  many  islands  by  innumerable  channels.  The 
islands  bordering  on  the  bay  of  Bengal  are  known 
collectively  as  the  Sunderbunds.  Rice  is  the  prin- 
cipal crop  and  the  staple  food  of  the  people.  Sev- 
eral of  the  islands  are  wooded,  and  the  woods  are 
infested  with  serpents  and  tigers  which  often  cause 
great  destruction  of  property  and  of  human  life. 

We  were  fortunate  in  reaching  Calcutta 
Calcutta.  .,        ,  ,.  -,    .  tu- 

rn   the    day    time,    and    in    not    being 

troubled   by   the   "bore"   which   sometimes    causes 

great  destruction  on  the  Hoogly.     The  city  is  built 

on  low  land,  consequently  tiie  natural  drainage  is 


A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  149 

poor.  Notwithstanding-  its  low  and  malarial  posi- 
tion, however,  engineering"  skill  has  succeeded  in 
rendering  it  fairly  healthy. 

On  landing,  we  inquire  the  way  to  the  American 
consulate.  A  native  policeman  kindly  guided  us  to 
the  door.  Our  passport  served  as  a  letter  of  intro- 
duction, and  on  reading  it  the  consul  generously 
offered  his  services  to  make  our  stay  as  pleasant  as 
possible.  In  the  afternoon  he  took  us  in  his  carriage 
to  see  the  most  noted  sights.  The  drive  to  the 
beautiful  suburb  of  Garden  Reach  was  very  enjoy- 
able. The  elegant  country  seats  and  picturesque 
gardens  with  their  wealth  of  tropical  plants  and 
flowers,  would  have  to  be  described  in  the  glowing 
language  of  the  Orient  to  do  them  justice.  We  met 
and  Indian  Rajah,  or  native  prince,  with  his  retinue. 
He  was  mounted  on  a  richly  caparisoned  English 
hunter,  and  made  quite  an  imposing  figure  with  his 
flowing  silken  robes  and  jeweled  turban. 

We  met  many  Brahmins  on. their  way  to 

D    .     .  the  temples.      Their  features  were  as 

Brahmins.  * 

clear  cut  and  regular  as  those  of  any 
European  or  American.  They  were  not  black,  or 
even  brown,  but  slightly  bronzed.  With  bare  heads 
cleanly  shaved,  and  with  arms  and  breast  naked, 
they  walked  with  self-conscious  pride  as  if  they 
would  impress  all  who  saw  them  with  the  fact  that 
they  were  members  of  the  most  ancient  aristocracy 
upon  earth.  The  simple  string  that  hangs  over  a 
Brahmin's  shoulder  and  across  his  breast  confers  a 
higher  honor  than  does  the  insignia  of  the  Garter, 
or  of  the  Golden  Fleece. 


150  Teach ing  Geography. 

But  all  of  the  natives  are  not  Brahmins;  many 
belong  to  the  lower  castes.  These  are  darker,  many 
being"  almost  black,  and  all  have  that  timid,  cring- 
ing look  peculiar  to  the  oppressed  of  all  lands. 

There  are  two  Calcuttas.  One  is  the  native  city 
with  narrow  unpaved  streets  and  with  bamboo  or 
mud  houses,  low  and  filthy  and  swarming  with  naked 
or  semi-naked  humanity.  As  we  were  driving 
through  the  streets,  the  people  were  preparing  their 
evening  meal.  The  fuel  used  by  the  poor  is  cow- 
dung,  and  the  smoke  which  it  gives  out  is  exceed- 
ingly unpleasant,  consequently  we  were  glad  to  enter 
the  English  Calcutta.  This  is  well-built,  with  wide 
streets  and  spacious  avenues.  The  houses  are  large; 
many  of  them  of  brick,  covered  with  stucco,  and 
having  broad  verandas. 

Calcutta  is  not  only  the  chief  seat  of  government 
for  India,  but  also  claims  to  be  the  greatest  com- 
mercial city  of  Asia.  It  receives  the  products 
brought  from  the  interior  by  the  Brahmaputra  and 
Ganges,  and  from  the  Sunderbunds  by  several  canals 
which  pass  round  and  through  them.  Besides  it  has 
three  trunk  lines  of  railroads,  each  having  several 
branches  or  feeders.  Its  chief  exports  are  jute, 
opium,  indigo,  rice,  wheat,  hides,  cotton,  raw  silk, 
and  tea.  The  imports  are  cotton  goods,  linens, 
hardware,  pig-iron,  silver,  wine,  and  salt.  Popula- 
tion, about  1,000,000. 

When  we  started  from  Calcutta  for 
The  Ganges  , ,  T    ,.  .  ,  ,  .    .. 

r,.  northern  India,  we  could  have  traveled 

River. 

by  railroad  as  there  is  a  well-equipped 
line  connecting  the  capital  with  the  cities  of  the 
north.     It  runs  quite  close  to  the  Ganges,  passing 


A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  151 

through  Benares,  Allahabad,  Lucknow,  and  Delhi; 
and  then  curving  well  to  the  northwest,  it  ends  at 
the  Chenaub  river,  one  of  the  principal  tributaries 
of  the  Indus.  As  our  purpose  was,  not  to  travel 
through  the  country  simply,  but  to  see  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  people  and  their  manner  of  life,  we 
decided  to  travel  up  the  Ganges  in  one  of  the  native 
boats.  The  increasing  shoals  in  the  river,  and  the 
cheap  communication  by  railroad  have  led  to  the 
giving  up  of  steamboat  navigation  above  Calcutta. 
The  native  boats  carry  on  an  immense  traffic.  It  is 
estimated  that  60,000  crafts  of  all  shapes  and  sizes 
pass  up  or  down  by  Benares  every  year.  Our  boat 
had  a  thatch  roof  over  part  of  it,  to  protect  us  from 
the  heat  of  the  sun.  This  thatched  part  was  our 
kitchen,  dining-room,  and  parlor  by  day,  and  our 
bedroom  by  night.  It  was  not  palatial,  but  we  were 
not  proud.  The  view  of  the  adjacent  country  was 
very  satisfactory,  as  the  banks  of  the  river,  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles,  are  low.  Our  crew  could  talk  Eng- 
lish quite  readily,  and  were  willing  to  give  us  all 
the  information  they  could.  When  the  wind  was 
favorable,  an  old  ragged  sail  was  used,  but  when  un- 
favorable, poles  or  "sweeps"  were  used  to  propel 
the  boat,  and  many  times  the  crew  walked  on  the 
shore  and  pulled  the  boat  by  means  of  ropes.  The 
downward  passage  is  made  more  easily.  We  rarely 
traveled  at  night.  The  boat  was  usually  tied  to  the 
bank  at  dusk  and  started  again  at  daybreak. 

The    first    city   of    note   at   which   we 

stopped  was  Benares,  the  holy  city  of 

the  Hindoos.   We  staid  here  two  days,  and  saw  much 

that  was  of  interest.      The  city  is  to  the  Hindoos 


152  Teaching  Geography. 

what  Mecca  is  to  the  Mohammedans.  Devout  people 
from  all  parts  of  India  come  to  worship  at  its 
shrines,  and  many  come  to  die.  When  a  pious  Hin- 
doo feels  that  his  end  is  near,  he  has  his  friends 
convey  him  to  the  city  to  die,  for  then  his  spirit  will 
pass  at  once  to  Brahma.  If  he  dies,  they  burn  his 
body  on  the  funeral  pile  and  scatter  his  ashes  on 
the  Ganges.  If  they  do  not  remain  by  until  the 
body  is  burned,  the  probabilities  are  that  the  un- 
scrupulous attendants  will  throw  it  into  the  river  in 
a  semi-charred  state,  in  order  to  save  the  fuel  for 
the  next  subject.  Many  such  bodies  floated  by  us 
on  our  way  up  here,  but  we  did  not  understand  their 
significance  until  we  saw  the  scenes  that  were  being 
enacted  in  front  of  Benares.  Incredible  as  it  may 
seem,  sons  have  been  known  to  choke  their  dying 
father  with  mud  from  the  sacred  Ganges,  or  to  break 
open  his  skull  so  as  to  let  the  spirit  out,  and  then  to 
push  the  body  into  the  river  while  it  was  but  slightly 
charred. 

The  largest  and  holiest  temples  are  near  the 
river,  and  imposing  flights  of  marble  stairs  lead 
down  to  the  water.  Here  may  be  seen  at  all  hours 
of  the  day  hundreds  of  devotees  bathing,  or  stand- 
ing up  to  their  armpits  in  the  water,  calling  upon 
Brahma  and  repeating  passages  from  their  sacred 
books.  We  visited  what  maybe  termed  the  leading 
theological  school,  the  most  famous  bazaar,  and  the 
temple  dedicated  to  the  monkey  god.  In  our  ram- 
bles we  passed  through  scenes  of  splendor  and 
squalor,  wealth  and  poverty,  Paradise  and  Gehenna, 
side  by  side.  In  no  other  quarter  of  the  globe  are 
extremes   found   in  such   close  juxtaposition  as  in 


A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  153 

Asia.     This  is  one  of  the  distinguishing-  character- 
istics of  the  continent. 

As  we  ascend  the  river  above  Benares,  we  have 

an  excellent  opportunity  to  see  the  country.     The 

boat  moves  so  slowly  that  when  it  hap- 

T.     „  pens  to  be  rounding  a  bend  in  the  cool 

The  Farms.      l  *> 

of  the  evening-,  we  frequently  land  and 
walk  across,  and  sometimes  travel  several  miles  in- 
land. Nowhere  do  we  see  any  isolated  farm  houses. 
The  land  being  cut  up  into  little  farms  of  two  or  three 
acres  each,  makes  it  possible  for  the  people  to  live 
in  villages.  The  tillers  of  the  soil,  however,  are 
not  the  only  inhabitants  of  the  villages.  In  many 
of  them  may  be  found  weavers,  leather-dressers, 
shoemakers,  and  others  engaged  in  what  may  well 
be  termed  unskilled  labor.  The  houses  are  usually 
built  of  mud,  or  un burned  brick,  and  the  roof  of 
baked  clay.  They  have  no  doors  or  windows  facing 
the  street,  as  that  would  make  it  possible  for  stran- 
gers to  see  their  women,  a  degradation  that  is  to  be 
feared  more  than  death. 

The  people  of  India  are  very  poor. 
Poverty  of 

-..     ,,      ,        There   are   a   few   wealthy  nobles   and 
The  People.  J 

grandees,  and  a  comparatively  small 
number  w7ho  are  in  comfortable  circumstances,  but 
the  great  mass  of  the  people  are  poor,  very  poor.  It 
is  doubtful  if  half  of  the  peasants  of  India  ever  eat 
enough  to  satisfy  their  hunger.  Two  slight  meals  a 
day  seems  to  be  the  regular  allowance  for  most  of 
them.  Scarcity  is  the  most  constant  visitor  at  their 
homes.  It  cannot  well  be  otherwise  in  the  home  of 
the  day  laborer  who  works  for  six  cents  a  day,  and 
has  to  support  a  family  of  live  or  six  persons  on  such 


154  Teaching  Geography. 

a  pittance.  Were  it  not  that  the  climate  is  such 
that  but  little  clothing  is  needed,  and  only  fuel 
enough  to  cook  what  little  food  they  have,  the  poor 
could  not  keep  body  and  soul  together. 

An  Illinois  farmer,  driving  for  the  first  time 
through  the  agricultural  regions  of  India,  might 
well  be  astonished  at  the  patchwork  appearance  of 
the  crops.  Here  an  acre  or  two  of  wheat;  adjoining 
it  two  or  three  acres  of  millet;  then  a  patch  of  cot- 
ton, and  next  a  small  field  of  indigo,  or  Indian  corn, 
with  an  occasional  strip  of  barley.  These  are  the 
principal  crops,  and  they  are  often  interspersed  with 
diminutive  areas  of  potatoes,  cabbages,  and  onions. 
When  we  consider  that  there  are  no  fences  separat- 
ing these  fields,  wTe  must  not  be  surprised  if  our  Illi- 
nois friend  regards  the  patchwork  as  decidedly  on 
the  "crazy-quilt"  order. 

The  culture  of  coffee  is  carried  on  extensively  in 
some  parts  of  the  country,  but  it  is  mainly  in  the 
hands  of  foreigners.  The  same  is  true  of  tea,  whose 
culture  is  confined  to  the  valley  of  Assam.  The 
sugar  produced  is  not  sufficient  for  home  consump- 
tion. Many  of  my  readers  may  suppose  that  rice  is 
the  chief  crop.  This  is  a  mistake.  It  is  cultivated 
only  in  the  deltas  of  the  great  rivers,  on  the  strip  of 
lowland  along  the  western  coast,  and  over  a  small 
area  in  the  northwest.  It  is  not  the  staple  food  of 
the  people  of  India  as  a  whole.  Millet  is  their  main 
dependence.  The  opium  poppy  is  cultivated  in  the 
vicinity  of  Benares  and  Patna,  and  on  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Vindhya  mountains. 

When  we  arrived  at  Allahabad,  the  great 
The  Mela.  ,,   ,  .  rm  , ,   , 

Mela  was  in  session.      These  Melas  were 


A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  155 

originally  religious  convocations,  a  sort  of  Hindoo 
campmeetings.  They  have  been  partly  secularized, 
and  are  now  combinations  of  religious  meetings  and 
fairs.  A  temporary  city  of  booths  and  tents  was 
erected  on  the  tongue  of  land  between  the  Ganges 
and  the  Jumna  rivers.  It  was  estimated  that  over 
half  a  million  people  were  in  attendance. 

It  was  a  motley  crowd,  embracing  all  classes  and 
conditions,  although  the  majority  were  of  the  com- 
mon people.  Fakirs  (religious  vagabonds),  mer- 
chants, and  jugglers  plied  their  several  vocations. 
Thousands  of  men  standing  in  the  water  were  busily 
engaged  in  religious  exercises.  Husbands  could  be 
s  en  leading  their  wives  with  covered  heads  into 
the  river,  where  they,  too,  engaged  in  the  rites  of 
their  religion.  All  of  these  we  respected,  for  evi- 
dently they  were  sincere.  But  the  Fakirs!  How  we 
longed  for  a  strong  force  of  lusty,  physical  mission- 
aries, with  a  plentiful  supply  of  scissors,  combs,  and 
soap,  and  authority  to  use  them.  The  Fakirs  were 
the  filthiest  animals  we  saw  in  India,  or  elsewhere. 
And  the  filthier  they  were,  the  greater  was  their 
odor  of  sanctity,  in  the  estimation  of  the  people. 
On  the  whole  the  sights  witnessed  at  this  great 
gathering  were  pitiful,  saddening,  and  disgusting, 
and  we  willingly  paid  our  boatmen  an  extra  fee  to 
induce  them  to  leave  a  few  days  before  the  time 
set  for  our  departure. 

From  Allahabad  to  Cawnpore  the  voy- 
The  Sepoy  ,  c    ,  TT  ,      n 

r»  •.  in  age    was   uneventful.       Here    we    bade 

Rebellion.  b 

goodbye  to  our  faithful  crew,  and  with 
becoming  decorum  received  their  salaams.  After 
refreshing  ourselves  at  a  neat    English  hotel,   we 


156  Teaching  Geography. 

hired  a  guide  to  show  us  the  scene  of  the  Cawnpore 
massacre.  As  we  looked  down  into  the  fatal  ravine 
that  opens  out  on  the  Ganges,  we  could,  in  imagin- 
ation, see  the  small  body  of  brave  British  soldiers, 
with  the  women  and  children  in  the  center,  march- 
ing down  to  the  river.  They  had  for  several  days 
resisted  successfully  the  archfiend,  Nana  Sahib,  and 
his  Sepoys.  Bravely  they  fought  although  their 
number  was  small  and  their  strength  gone  because 
of  exposure  and  lack  of  food.  No  man  thought  of 
surrendering,  for  all  knew  that  not  only  the  lives, 
but  what  was  more  precious,  the  honor  of  British 
women,  was  at  stake.  At  length  the  Nana  seeing 
that  it  would  take  more  time  to  overcome  them  than 
he  could  spare,  determined  to  destroy  them  through 
treachery.  So  he  offered  to  let  them  go  down  the 
river  to  their  friends  and  to  furnish  boats  for  the 
women,  children,  and  wounded.  The  offer  was  in 
writing  over  his  signature,  and  unfortunately  was 
accepted.  As  they  approached  the  ravine  they 
could  see  the  boats  in  readiness,  with  the  boatmen 
standing  by.  They  had  no  sooner  entered  the  ra- 
vine, however,  than  a  blast  from  a  bugle  was  heard 
in  the  rear,  and  instantly  masked  batteries  opened 
upon  them.  The  attendants  set  fire  to  the  boats, 
and  five  hundred  rifles  poured  their  missiles  upon  the 
devoted  troops.  The  carnage  was  over  in  a  few 
minutes.  Only  four  of  the  soldiers  escaped  to  tell 
the  story.  The  Sepoys  were  instructed  to  spare 
the  lives  of  the  women,  and  they  and  the  children 
were  imprisoned  in  a  small  building  of  two  rooms. 
On  hearing  that  General  Havelock  was  coming  to 
their  rescue,  Nana  ordered  his  troops  to  kill  all  of 


A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  157 

them.  This  they  refused  to  do,  so  he  hired  five 
butchers  from  the  town  to  do  the  deed.  These  mon- 
sters entered  with  swords  and  knives,  fastened 
the  doors  behind  them,  and  in  an  hour  and  a  half 
their  work  was  finished.  The  common  .scavengers 
dragged  out  these  once  beautiful  women  and  children 
and  threw  them  into  an  open  well  near  by.  We 
visited  the  well.  It  is  still  the  grave  of  those  so 
cruelly  massacred;  and  over  it  the  great  British  na- 
tion has  erected  an  elegant  building  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  most  charming  grounds. 


158  Teaching  Geography. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


A   TRIP   TO    CEYLON   AND   INDIA. — CONTINUED. 

From  Cawnpore  we  traveled  overland  to 
Luck  now 

Lucknow,  the  scene  of  the  famous  siege. 

As  we  stood  within  the  Residency  it  required  no 
great  effort  of  the  imagination  to  people  it  once  more 
with  brave  soldiers,  Christian  women  and  helpless 
children.  We  could  hear  the  commander,  Sir  Henry 
Lawrence,  ordering  the  men  with  his  dying  voice, 
to  "save  the  ladies,"  and  never  to  surrender.  And 
we  could  hear  them,  in  turn,  pledging  themselves 
that  there  should  not  be  another  Cawnpore,  while 
wives  were  heard  exacting  promises  from  their  hus- 
bands that  when  death  became  inevitable  they  would 
kill  them  with  their  own  hands  rather  than  let  them 
fall  alive  into  the  hands  of  the  Sepoys.  We  asked 
about  the  truthfulness  of  the  story  of  Jessie  Brown, 
and  our  guide,  a  one-legged  veteran,  and  evidently 
a  Highlander,  declared  that  the  story  is  true,  no 
matter  what  historians  may  say  to  the  contrary. 
As  we  paid  for  this  information,  it  is  but  reason- 
able that  we  should  use  it. 

"There  Jessie  Brown  stood  listening 

Till  a  sudden  gladness  broke 
All  over  her  face;  and  she  caught  my  hand 

And  drew  me  near  and  spoke: — 

"  'The  Hielanders!  O,  dinna  ye  hear 

The  slogan  far  awaV 
The  McGregors',— O,  I  ken  it  weel; 

It's  the  grandest  o'  them  a'! 


A  'Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  159 

"  'God  bless  the  bonny  Hielanders! 

We're  saved!  we're  saved!'  she  cried, 
And  fell  on  her  knees:  and  thanks  to  God 

Flowed  forth  like  a  full  llood-tide." 

To  leave  India  without  visiting  Agra 

-w-  .  «.  l  .  and  inspecting-  the  Tai  Mahal  would  be 
Taj  Mahal.  .  , 

sure  to  bring  upon  us  the  censure  of  our 

aesthetic  friends.  We  therefore  took  the  train  from 
Lucknow  and  soon  arrived  in  sight  of  the  most 
beautiful  building  in  the  world.  To  attempt  any- 
thing like  an  adequate  description  of  the  Taj  would 
be  a  helpless  task.  Artists  and  critics  who  have 
seen  it,  acknowledge  that  language  is  too  feeble  to 
describe  its  matchless  beauty.  One  enthusiastic 
traveler  says  that,  "Viewing  it  from  the  lofty  tomb 
of  Akbar,  five  miles  distant,  it  looks  like  a  tent  of 
snowy  whiteness  and  rich  embroidery  let  down  from 
heaven  into  a  paradise  of  earth  to  be  the  audience- 
chamber  of  an  angel  on  an  errand  of  mercy  to  men. " 
Others  are  quite  as  enthusiastic,  though  perhaps  not 
so  poetic.  We  had  read  several  descriptions  of  the 
building,  and  supposed  we  were  ready  to  appreciate 
its  exquisite  grace  and  symmetry.  But  as  we  stood 
in  its  presence,  we  felt  that  our  ideas  of  the  struc- 
ture fell  far  short  of  the  reality.  We  forgot  the 
descriptions  and  stood  entranced  by  the  divine  in- 
fluence of  the  builder's  art.  Several  times  did  we 
try  to  turn  away  from  the  Taj  to  admire  the  well- 
kept  grounds  with  their  rows  of  cypress  trees, 
orange,  lemon,  and  pakn,  and  the  profusion  of 
choicest  flowers  which  border  the  walks,  but  in  vain. 
Our  eyes  were  not  satisfied  to  dwell  on  the  inferior 
while  the  superior  was  present;  and  in  this  instance 
man  had  excelled  nature. 


160  Teaching  Geography. 

The  journey  from  Agra  to  Delhi  is  a  short 
one,  and  is  made  over  a  good  railroad 
and  in  a  comfortable  car.  Delhi  was  long  the  cen- 
ter of  Mohammedan  power  in  India,  the  capital  of 
the  Great  Moguls.  Here  was  erected  the  Peacock 
Throne  at  a  cost  of  $150,000,000,  but  it  was  carried 
away  long  ago  by  the  Persian  invader.  The  Sepoy 
rebellion  put  an  end  to  the  rule  of  the  Great  Moguls. 
Many  of  their  palaces  are  in  ruins,  while  those  that 
remain  are  occupied  by  British  officials.  On  the 
streets  we  saw  many  snake  charmers  and  jugglers 
trying  to  obtain  a  few  coins  by  entertaining  the 
populace.  Here,  also,  through  the  kindness  of  a 
British  captain,  who  liked  America  and  Americans, 
we  met  several  intelligent  Hindoos  and  Mohamme- 
dans, from  whom  we  obtained  much  valuable  infor- 
mation in  regard  to  the  country,  and  the  hopes  and 
aspirations  of  their  people. 

Our  readers  will  understand,  no  doubt, 
The  Women        ,       ,,  ,.,„         .,.     ., 

. .    ..  why  there  is  so  little  said  in  these  notes 

of  India.  J 

about  the  women  of  India.  Custom  ex- 
cludes them  from  the  sight  of  all  men  except  those 
of  their  own  immediate  family.  The  "Nautch  girls," 
that  is  the  dancing  girls,  may  be  seen  in  any  of  the 
large  cities.  They  are  social  out-casts,  yet  the  most 
intelligent  class  of  native  women.  At  feasts  and 
merry-makings  they  are  hired  to  entertain  the  guests 
with  their  witticisms,  singing,  and  dancing.  But 
even  they  cannot  be  hired  to  engage  in  a  dance  with 
persons  of  the  opposite  sex.  Much  less  could  any 
respectable  woman  be  induced  to  do  so.  How  Amer- 
icans and  Europeans  can  permit  their  wives  and 
daughters  to  take  part  in  mixed  dances  is  one  of  the 


A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  161 

mysteries  which  the  eastern  mind  cannot  fathom. 

Bidding'  farewell  to  our  friends  at  Delhi 
The  Vale  of 

~    . we  took  the  train  to  Moultan,  on   the 

Cashmere. 

Chenaub  river,  one  of  the  principal  trib- 
utaries of  the  Indus.  Here  we  hesitated  some  time 
as  to  what  course  to  pursue  next.  We  desired  very 
much  to  go  north  to  Cashmere. 

"Who  has  not  heard  of  the  Vale  of  Cashmere. 

With  its  roses  the  brightest  that  earth  ever  gave, 
Its  temples,  and  grottos,  and  fountains  as  clear 

As  the  love-lighted  eyes  that  hang  over  their  wave." 

We  had  heard  of  the  famous  vale,  had  read  about 

the  skill  of  its  weavers  and  silversmiths,  and  would 

have  liked  to  see  for  ourselves  the  products  of  their 

skill   but  the  brief  time  at  our  command  forbade  our 

doing1  so.     Extravagant  as  Moore's  description  may 

seem,  modern  travelers,  who  have  visited  the  region, 

tell  us  that  the  poet's  fancy  did  not  far  exceed  the 

reality:  that  it  is  a  veritable  paradise  surrounded  by 

walls  of  snow-capped  mountains,  a  smile  of  heaven 

set  in  the  midst  of  nature's  frowns.     They  also  tell 

us  that  the  valley  is  not  only  famous  for  its  scenery, 

but  for  the  productiveness  of  its  soil  as  well.    Wheat, 

maize,  barley,  and  millet  are  the  principal  crops,  but 

the  common  fruits  and   vegetables   are   cultivated 

with  profit. 

At  Moultan  we  embarked  on  the  Chen- 
The  Indus  ,  . 

River  a       river,  and  as  we  were  borne  along 

by   the  current,   we    recalled    the    fact 

that    more    than    twenty-two   hundred    years    ago 

Alexander     the     Great     sailed     over      the     same 

course.     It  was  at  the  site  of  Moultan  that  he  came 

near  losing  his  life  in  trving  to  take  the  stronghold 


162  Teaching  Geography. 

of  the  Malli.  And  it  was  at  the  junction  of  the 
Chenaub  with  the  Indus  that  he  ordered  extensive 
dockyards  to  be  constructed  and  his  last  Alexandria 
to  be  built.  The  volume  of  the  Indus  grows  less  and 
less  as  we  approach  the  delta,  owing  to  its  passing 
through  a  rainless  region  ,  the  eastern  outskirts  of 
the  desert  of  Gedrosia,  which  proved  so  destructive 
to  the  Macedonian  hosts.  Notwithstanding  its  dis- 
couraging natural  conditions,  much  of  the  land  on 
both  sides  of  the  river,  back  as  far  as  we  could  see, 
is  rendered  productive  by  means  of  irrigating  canals. 
The  delta  is  very  fertile,  another  Egypt,  and  like 
Egypt  is  fertilized  every  year  by  the  river  which 
made  it. 

We  left  the  Indus  at  Hydrabad  and  traveled  by 
rail  to  the  great  city  of  Bombay.  Everywhere  along 
the  route,  we  could  see  the  farmers  trying  to  coax 
or  force  a  scanty  subsistence  from  the  earth.  In 
many  places  we  could  see  carts  drawn  by  a  single 
ox,  carrying  last  years  crop  to  market,  or  convey- 
ing the  family  on  a  visiting  trip.  When  the  occu- 
pants were  women  of  the  higher  or  middle  castes, 
the  cart  had  a  canopy  over  it  as  a  protection  from 
the  sun,  and  curtains  at  the  sides  as  a  protection 
from  the  gaze  of  the  unclean,  by  which  is  meant 
persons  of  the  lower  castes  and  foreigners,  whose 
glance  is  to  be  dreaded  more  than  the  fiercest  rays 
of  the  sun. 

Bombay,    the   second   city  of  India  in 

om  ay.  ^.^  ^^  importance,  is  situated  on  the 

western    coast   of   the  peninsula.      It   is  the  great 

commercial  rival  of  Calcutta,  but  is  handicapped  by 

the  fact  that  its  connection  with  the  interior  is  en- 


A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  163 

tirely  by  railway,  while  its  rival  not  only  has  an 
extensive  system  of  railroads,  but  is  also  able  to 
reach  the  most  fertile  parts  of  the  country  by  means 
of  the  Brahmaputra  and  Ganges  rivers,  with  their 
tributaries.  Bombay  is  still  further  hindered  in  the 
commercial  race  by  the  fewness  of  its  exports;  cot- 
ton, grain,  and  opium  being-  the  only  articles  worthy 
of  mention,  while  Calcutta  has  a  great  variety.  Its 
nearness  to  the  Suez  canal,  however,  together  with 
its  good  harbor,  offsets  in  part  the  advantages  of 
the  city  on  the  Hoogly. 

When  the  train  arrived  at  the  well-appointed 
union  station,  we  could  easily  imagine  ourselves  in 
one  of  the  large  cities  of  America.  The  offers  of 
cabs,  carriages,  and  "buses"  were  as  many  and  as 
hearty  as  we  ever  had  made  to  us  in  Chicago,  and 
they  were  made  in  fully  as  many  varieties  of  English. 
Engaging  a  carriage  and  claiming  our  "luggage," 
we  drove  over  smoothly  paved  streets  to  an  excel- 
lent hotel.  Next  morning  we  started  out  shortly 
after  breakfast  to  view  the  city.  It  is  the  most 
English  of  all  the  cities  of  India  that  we  visited. 
The  houses  of  the  Europeans  and  the  wealthy  na- 
tives are  large  and  commodious,  and  as  a  general 
thing  each  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  grounds,  or 
''gardens,"  as  they  are  termed  here.  The  stores  on 
the  leading  business  streets  are  three  or  four  stories 
high,  and  well  stocked  with  the  products  of  both 
the  Orient  and  the  Occident.  And  although  there  is 
much  filth  and  poverty  in  the  native  quarter  of  the 
city,  yet  the  conditions  are  not  so  dreadfully  dis- 
gusting as  in  Calcutta. 


164  Teaching  Geography. 

The  most  pleasing-  sight  that  met  our  gaze  was 
an  American  flag  floating  from  the  masthead  of  a 
steamer  that  was  unloading  an  assorted  cargo  of 
machinery,  farming  implements,  and  railroad  sup- 
plies. We  had  seen  the  flag  waving  its  protecting 
folds  over  the  consular  residences  in  all  the  great 
commercial  centers  that  we  visited;  but  it  meant 
more  to  us  in  this  instance  since  it  was  recently  from 
home,  and  would  soon  return  again.  The  sight  sug- 
gested a  slight  touch  of  home-sickness,  and  we  de- 
termined to  finish  our  itinerary  as  quickly  as 
possible.  We  felt,  however,  that  we  must  visit  the 
Deccan  and  see  for  ourselves  something  of  the  rav- 
ages made  by  the  famine  and  the  bubonic  plague. 

A  day's  travel  by  railroad  brought  us 
to  Hyderabad  in  the  south-central  part 
of  the  peninsula.  The  sights  that  we  saw  were 
heart-rending;  men,  women,  and  children  dying  for 
the  want  of  something  to  eat,  while  the  world  had 
more  than  food  enough  for  all  its  inhabitants.  We 
thought  of  the  corn  cribs  of  Illinois,  full  to  over- 
flowing with  nourishing  food,  and  enough  of  it  being 
wasted  by  rats  to  save  millions  of  human  lives  in 
this  poor  miserable  country.  It  is  sad,  it  is  pitiful, 
that  strong  men,  helpless  women,  and  innocent 
children  must  die  of  starvation  and  rot  by  the  road- 
side, when  a  little  of  the  world's  superabundance 
would  save  their  lives.  The  government  of  India  is 
doing  much  to  relieve  the  suffering,  and  so  are  the 
the  missionaries,  but  notwithstanding  their  efforts 
the  condition  of  the  poor  is  terrible.  And  this  is 
not  due  to  their  want  of  thrift  as  many  may  sup- 
pose, but  to  the  lack  of  sufficient  rain.    The  Deccan 


A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  165 

peninsula  being-  bordered  by  the  eastern  and  west- 
ern Ghauts,  it  often  happens  that  not  enough  of  the 
rains,  brought  by  the  monsoons,  is  permitted  to 
reach  the  interior  plateau  to  render  the  soil  produc- 
tive. When  such  conditions  prevail,  they  are  sure 
to  be  followed  by  famine,  and  famine  is  always  the 
fore-runner  of  a  plague  of  some  kind.  It  is  so  now, 
and  the  twin  sisters  are  gloating  over  their  work. 

On  our  return  to  Bombay  we  engaged 
Marriaze  passage    on    the     steamer    Brunswick 

bound  for  Liverpool.  As  it  would  not 
leave  for  two  or  three  days  we  determined  to  use 
the  time  in  writing  some  general  notes  on  India. 
Before  doing  so,  however,  we  wish  to  say  that  we 
did  not  witness  a  marriage  or  a  funeral  service  while 
in  the  country.  We  understood  that  child  marriage 
still  prevails;  that  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  girls 
of  eight  or  ten  years  to  be  married  to  boys  of  like 
age,  or  even  to  men  of  twenty,  thirty,  or  forty  years; 
and  that  the  parents  would  consider  themselves  dis- 
graced if  their  daughter  was  not  married,  or  at  least 
betrothed,  by  the  time  she  was  twelve  years  of  age. 

In  regard  to  the  manner  of  disposing  of 
the  Dead  tne  dead,  we  have  already  stated  that 

the  Hindoos  burn  theirs.  For  many  ages 
it  was  the  custom  to  burn  the  living  wives  on  the 
funeral  pile  of  their  dead  husbands;  but  this  prac- 
tice of  sutteeism  has  been  suppressed  by  the  British. 
The  Mohammedans  always  bury  their  dead;  the  poor 
in  shallow  graves,  many  of  which  are  robbed  by  the 
jackals  that  infest  the  country;  the  rich  in  costly 
mausoleums.  The  Parsees  of  Bombay  have  erected 
a  high  tower,  across  whose  top  is  a  heavy  grating. 


166  Teaching  Geography. 

On  this  grating-  they  place  their  dead,  and  the  vul- 
tures gorge  themselves  on  the  flesh.  This  seems  the 
most  shocking  custom  of  all;  and  yet  the  Parsees 
are  among  the  most  intelligent  and  enterprising  por- 
tion of  the  community. 

India,  the  middle  one  of  three  great  pen- 
..    ..  insulas  that  project  south  from  Asia,  has 

natural  boundaries  throughout.  On  the 
north  are  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  on  the  west  the 
Suliman  separate  it  from  Afghanistan  and  Beloo- 
chistan,  and  on  the  east  it  is  separated  from  Bur- 
mah  by  spurs  of  the  Himalayas;  while  on  the 
southeast  and  southwest  it  is  washed  by  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  and  the  Arabian  Sea,  respectively.  Prom 
north  to  south  it  is  1,900  miles,  or  about  five  times 
the  length  of  Illinois.  Its  area  is  about  twenty- 
seven  times  as  great  as  that  of  Illinois,  and  its  popu- 
lation more  than  three  times  that  of  the  entire 
United  States.  This  vast  empire  is  governed  by 
Great  Britain;  for  although  there  are  a  few  so-called 
independent  states  governed  by  native  rulers,  yet 
even  they  are  subject  to  British  control. 

The  surface  is  divided  into  three  dis- 

tinctly  marked  divisions.  In  the  north, 
bordering  on  the  Himalayas,  is  a  belt  of  low  moun- 
tains and  foothills  with  an  average  width  of  a  hun- 
dred miles.  This  region  is  occupied  by  various 
tribes  of  mountaineers;  and  the  British  officials  and 
others  who  can  afford  to  do  so,  spend  several  weeks 
here  each  year  to  recuperate  from  the  depressing  in- 
fluence of  the  lowlands.  South  of  this  hilly  tract 
is  a  great  plain  thirteen  or  fourteen  hundred  miles 
long-  and  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  miles 


A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  167 

wide,  and  as  level  as  a  house  floor.  This  plain  con- 
sists of  alluvial  deposit  washed  down  from  the  Him- 
alayas and  from  Thibet,  and  is  the  most  fertile  and 
best  cultivated  part  of  the  country.  It  is  the  home 
of  the  Hindoos,  and  was  wrested  by  their  Aryan  an- 
cestors from  its  earlier  occupants. 

Farther  to  the  south,  and  separated  from  the 
great  central  plain  by  the  Vindhya  mountains,  is 
the  peninsula  of  Deccan.  It  consists  of  a  great 
plateau  bounded  on  the  east  and  west  by  the  Ghauts 
mountains,  which  unite  at  Cape  Comorin.  The  in- 
habitants belong  to  the  Dravidian  family,  and  are 
supposed  to  have  been  driven  south  by  the  conquer- 
ing Aryans. 

Of  the  great  rivers  cf  India,  the  Brah- 
o  j  vers 

maputra  and  Indus    have  their    origin 

and  much  of  their  course  north  of  the  Himalayas, 
but  they  bestow  their  richest  gifts  on  India.  T  e 
Ganges,  the  sacred  river,  rises  on  the  south  slope  of 
the  Himalayas,  at  the  foot  of  a  great  snow-bed, 
10,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  1.500 
miles  long,  and  its  average  width  is  greater  than 
that  of  the  Mississippi.  With  all  due  respect  to 
the  deity  whose  name  it  bears,  it  is  a  treacherous 
stream,  full  of  shoals  and  shifting  mud-banks,  and 
not  fit  for  ordinary  navigation. 

The  climate  is  hot.  At  no  time  of  the 
year  is  it  safe  for  Europeans  to  be  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  bareheaded.  But  while  all  seasons 
are  hot,  the  greatest  heat  prevails  from  the  middle 
of  May  to  the  middle  of  June.  This  is  a  trying 
time  for  foreigners,  and  were  it  not  for  the  pankas, 
or  fans,  with   which  the  houses  are  fitted  up,   the 


163  Teaching  Geography. 

heat  would  be  unendurable.  There  is  no  use  for 
fires,  except  for  cooking"  purposes,  therefore  the 
houses  are  built  without  chimneys,  as  the  cooking 
is  done  in  detached  kitchens,  or  sheds. 

In  the  rainy  seasons  the  country  is  covered  with 
verdure,  but  as  the  cultivated  crops  have  already 
been  discussed,  it  only  remains  to  be  said  that  great 
care  is  taken  of  the  forests.  They  are  in  charge  of 
skillfully  trained  foresters,  who  are  government 
officials.  These  functionaries  not  only  care  for  the 
forests,  but  it  is  also  apart  of  their  duty  to  see  that 
trees  are  planted  along  the  country  roads.  As  a 
consequence,  one  may  drive  for  hundreds  of  miles 
between  rows  of  mango  trees,  valuable  both  for 
their  shade  and  fruit.  The  jungles  are  numerous: 
but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  "a  jungle  in  India 
means  any  portion  of  wild  land,  whether  covered 
With  grass,  bush,  or  timber.''  The  jungles  are  the 
homes  of  many  wild  animals.  The  elephant,  lion, 
tiger,  leopard,  hyena,  jackal,  etc.,  abound,  and  of  ten 
commit  great  depredations  upon  the  growing  crops; 
while  some  of  them  even  love  to  feast  upon  the  own- 
ers. Serpents  also  are  numerous,  and  disposed  to 
court  human  society.  The  poorer  natives,  going 
barefooted  and  barelegged,  suffer  most  from  their 
venemous  bites;  foreigners  are  rarely  injured. 

Our  earl\r  reading  led  us  to  believe  that 
Minerals  T     -..  .    ,  T 

India  was  a  very  rich  country.  In  imag- 
ination we  could  see  the  mines  of  Golconda  glitter- 
ing with  diamonds,  while  gold  was  so  plenty  that  it 
was  scarcely  worth  digging.  The  fact  is.  it  is  a  com- 
paratively poor  country.  Its  soil  is  productive  in 
the  plains,  but  on  the  plateaus  it  is  thin  and  poor, 


A  Trip  to  Ceylon  and  India.  169 

and  a  good  crop  is  the  exception.  There  are  but  few 
places  where  it  pays  to  mine  for  gold  and  silver. 
Iron  is  very  plentiful,  but  because  of  the  want  of 
coal  it  is  cheaper  to  import  the  metal  from  Europe 
than  it  is  to  attempt  to  mine  and  smelt  the  native 
ore.  Coal  has  recently  been  found  in  a  few  locali- 
ties, and  if  it  should  prove  of  good  quality,  it  would 
be  of  more  value  to  India  than  all  its  gems  and  preci- 
ous metals. 

The  manufacturers  are  few  and  feeble. 

Manufactures.   0  ^  •*    i  i 

Some  years  ago  European  capital  and 

skill  attempted  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods. 
The  enterprise  was  very  successful,  so  much  so  that 
the  cotton  kings  of  Manchester  were  alarmed.  They 
raised  a  great  hue  and  cry  about  the  cheap  labor  of 
Asiatics  being  brought  into  competition  with  Eng- 
lish labor.  Their  cry  was  listened  to,  and  matters 
were  so  adjusted  by  the  home  government  that  the 
factories  of  India  had  to  close  their  doors,  and  the 
poor  of  the  country  had  to  buy  their  few  cotton  gar- 
ments at  Manchester  prices. 

Bat  the  whistle  of  the  Brunswick  is  blowing,  and 
that  means  that  passengers  must  be  on  board  in  an 
hour.  So  we  close  these  notes,  pack  our  grips,  and 
say  good-by  to  our  readers. 


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